THE CONCEPT OF ENVIRONMENT AS A COMMON
Importance of 3 environmental commons in Uganda.
Mugira Fredrick

“It was a community which resulted from the fact that those things which were common to all belonged no more to one other to the others, and hence no one could prevent another from taking these common things that portion which he judged necessary in order to subsurve his wants from.”
Geerv. Connecticut, 161 U.S, 519 (1896).

The central focus of this essay is on discussing what the concept of environment, as a commons is all about and analyzing the economic importance of three environmental commons in my country Uganda.

Commons means things common to all or rather a property that is for the public and no individual can come up to demand the ownership.
Wipikedia encyclopedia[1], defines the word “commons” to mean, “any sets of resources that a community recognizes as being accessible to any member of the community.”
This draws attention to the fact that any member of the community has a right to use of the commons.
Wikipedia Encyclopedia identifies some of the examples of commons as “land and rivers while Chiras (2001), Kraus (2000), Mckinney and Schoch (2003) and Narayan et al (2000) identify some other commons as atmosphere, the oceans, ozone layer and pasture, forests, woodlands, lakes, rivers and common grazing lands.

Therefore, environment as a commons would mean that environment is a common resource shared by all. In other words, no human being on earth owns environment. It is for all human beings and its mismanagement affects the whole system and not that particular place only.

The environment in this case becomes a common property resource, which Pearce and Tuner (1990:250) identify as that resource “owned by some defined group of people, a community, a nation.” It is important to note that as Pearce and Tuner (1990:250) write, “there is open access” to the resource and people or rather residents of that particular place are “permitted to make whatever use they wish of the resource.”

(Bailley) argues that environmental commons are, “those things extra patrimoiium (incapable of being possessed) and thus available and necessary to all organisms. These fundamental resources by their dynamic nature include water, air and biological and genetic diversity.” This brings to the attention the fact that environmental commons mean the natural resources that are common to all. Those that are owned collectively and never privately. Their access is free to all member of that particular area or village or country.

There is no restriction to environment, all human beings have free access to it. It is a shared resource among the human beings and as O’riordan (1997:347) notes, “membership is just because ‘human beings’ belong to the ‘world’.

As O’riordan (1997:17) argues that, “in the commons, people recognize their dependency on each other and the earth that supports them.” This calls for collective responsibility over the commons.

However it is important to note that following lack of specified ownership chances of over exploitation and mismanagement or rather what is sometimes termed as tragedy of commons are high. Chiras (2001:246) notes that, “the logic that compels people to abuse communal holdings has been with humankind as long as common property has.”
Chiras (2001), give an example of exploited and mismanaged common as the overgrazed communal property of the Sahel. This brings to the attention of the fact that the view of environment as a common could be leading to more of its destruction than mismanagement. This is due to lack of private ownership.

There are several environmental commons in my country Uganda. Some of these include rivers, lakes, National Parks, range lands and forests. However, for the purposes of the essay, I have selected to concentrate on National Parks, forests and lakes. The remaining parts of this essay will analyze the economic importance of these three environmental commons.

National Parks:
A National park, according to Wikipedia Encyclopedia is “a resource of land, usually owned by a national government, protected from most human development and pollution.” In such a reserved land, there are wild animals, plants, birds, unusual geological features to mention but a few.

Most of the National Parks in Uganda are mostly situated in western parts of the country. They include Bwindi impenetrable forest, Queen Elizabeth, Mt. Rwenzori, Mt. Elgon, Murchison falls, Lake Mburo, Kidepo valley, and Kibale National Parks.

One of the economic importances of National Parks in the country is the provision of the employment. From park rangers to tour guides and wardens, all these are employed by the National Parks to give services there. Through this, the people employed earn a living through salaries and wages they are paid. It is important to note that inside these parks, there are also several hotels and lodges all of which employ several people as service providers there.

Secondly, National Parks attract tourists to the country who bring with them foreign exchange. Several tourists have been flocking into Uganda mostly from developed countries of US, Britain and Sweden to tour the National Parks. When these tourists come to Uganda, they pay money to the Parks before they visit them. They also spend on things like food and accommodation, all of which help the nation to get foreign exchange.
Tourists also pay for activities they do in these parks such as sport hunting which is going on in Lake Mburo National Park and mountain climbing in Mr. Rwenzori National Park.
It is important to note here that National Parks in Uganda do not only earn to the nation foreign exchange but also some Ugandans visit them and they end up paying some fee.



National Parks are also a major source of revenue to government especially after taxation. Annually parks are taxed by the government and this money goes directly to the development of the nation. As NEMA (2001:28) notes, the country earns “approximately UShs 2.7 billion annually,” from tourism. Some parks also share their revenues directly with the neighboring communities, the revenue they earn. They usually give about 20 percent of the money collected as park entrance fee to the communities surrounding the park as a move intended to share with them revenues collected. This also helps in the development of these communities.

More still, hides skins, horns, meat and all those rare things from the parks help the parks and the nation at large to earn money when they are sold. Some restaurants in the country have specialized in selling meat of wild animals while some shops also sell commodities delivered from the park. All this means that at least money is earned by the park managers when they sell these items to those who deal in them.

National parks are also used as ranches sometimes. This is going on in Lake Mburo National Park especially during the dry seasons. This helps farmers in raising their livestock, which they depend on in from of milk, meat, and revenue after selling them.

Forests:-
MFPED (2003:113) notes that, “forests and woodlands cover 24 percent of the total land area in Uganda.” This draws attention to the fact that forests and woodlands in Uganda play a big role in the country. NEMA (2001:27) discloses that, “currently Uganda has about 49,500km2 of forests consisting of tropical high forests and savanna woodland (99%) and plantation (1%).”

Most of the natural forests in the country have for the past few years been changed from gazetted forests reserves to National Parks such as those in Bwindi, Rwenzori and Mugahinga among others.

According to NEMA (2001:27), “more than 50% of the forests and woodlands in Uganda lie outside protected areas with no legal or institution framework for their management.” In other words, there is free access to them as a commons should be. Some of the national forests in Uganda include Imaramagambo, Karinju, and Mabira to mention but a few.

One of the economic importances of forests in Uganda is provision of employment. NEMA (2001:28) notes that, “the forest sector creates significant employment, probably the equivalent of nearly one million jobs.” Such jobs are occupied by people who do lumbering, who look after the forests, people engaged in management of nursery beds, and seedlings without forgetting those who burn trees to make charcoal.
This helps those people to earn income in form of salaries and wages they get from these businesses.

Secondly, forests in Uganda are a source of revenue to the government. NEMA (2001:28) observes that, “the current annual turnover of business in forestry is about UShs 356 billion, with a further estimated annual value of UShs 112 billion attributed to environmental services.” Government earns revenue from the forests after selling of products from them such as timbers and logs. It is important to note that such revenue help in the development of the nation.

Thirdly forests are a source of raw materials for construction and furniture making. Such products when sold, they help the country or community to earn money. Such products too help local people to construct shelters, which are necessary for one to live a health life. One can never be economically well off without a health life.

Forests also are a source of energy in the country. According to NEMA (2001:28), “90% of national energy” comes from “wood fuels”. Such energy is in form of firewoods and charcoal, all of which help people to cook their food, light and do other activities.
It is important to note that wood energy is cheap. However, it is greatly leading to deforestation of forests in the country.

More still, forests in Uganda are a major source of medicinal plants. Such medicine is used most in rural areas and even in urban areas of Uganda to heal several diseases of the people such as malaria, stomach problems to mention but a few. Most people earn a living from selling herbs collected from these forests, which are used to make herbal medicine.

Forests in the country are a host of several National Parks which attract tourists. NEMA (2001:28) notes that, “much tourism in Uganda is based on forests, woodlands and their constituent wild and natural beauty.” Tourists bring into the country foreign exchange
As NEMA (2001:27) notes, “forests in Uganda such as “Mgahinga, Bwindi, Rwenzori, Semuliki, Kibale and Mt. Elgon were changed from gazetted forests reserves to National Parks.” This draws attention to the fact that forests are a major host of National parks. It is important to note that some forests themselves attract tourists and scientists who bring into the country foreign exchange.

I cannot forget to mention that forests in Uganda are a source of foods of different types for the people. Some people do collect such foods from forests and sell them into markets hence earning a lot of income. Such foods include mostly fruits and edible wildlife such as rabbits and wild pigs among others.

Lastly, forests are a source of craft materials which have helped the craft industry to flourish in the country. Such crafts materials include those used to make items like baskets, traditional hats, mats among others. All these are a source of revenue to the people engaged in this business.

Lakes:
Major lakes of Uganda include Victoria, Albert, George, Edward, Kyoga and Kwania.
NEMA (2001:50) notes that, “open water bodies constitute 15% of the area of Uganda (36, 280km2)”

One of the economic importances of lakes in Uganda includes provision of water for irrigation, a thing that helps in the production of crops such as rice.
NEMA (2001:55) reveals that, “currently it is estimated that about 207 million m3 of water is used annually for irrigation.” With this certainly there has been increased agricultural production due to irrigation of the crops which would otherwise fail to grow well due to lack of enough water. Increased agricultural production means increased revenue to the farmers and the government after taxations and export

Secondly, lakes in Uganda are a source of fish. Fish in Uganda is consumed locally and also exported to foreign countries. This helps the people engaged in this business to earn income while on the side of the government; a lot of revenue is attained as fish is exported to foreign countries.

Lakes also provide employment opportunities to several people in the country. From fishermen, to fishmongers, Lake Managers and specialists, all these earn salaries and wages from the activities they operate on and around lakes.
With increased levels of un-employment in Uganda, Lakes are seen as a rescue for people who are brave enough to carry out activities on the waters.

It is important to note that like National Parks and Forests, lakes attract tourists. Lakes in Uganda such as Victoria, Kyoga and Albert are major tourist attractors. When these tourists arrive in the country, they bring with them foreign exchange. They also spend on several other things while they are in the country, all of which leaves the government and local people who operate businesses targeting tourists with income for their well being and poverty eradication.

Lakes are also a source of water for both domestic and livestock use. NEMA (2001:54) notes that, “with the population almost doubling between 1991 and 2010 in both rural and urban areas, the demand for water will likewise at least double.” Lakes are always there to provide water to people. Most of the water supplied in towns originates from lakes such as Lake Victoria which supplies Kampala city.

Likewise, NEMA (2001:54) notes that, “water for livestock constitutes a significant form of water use especially in the semi and pastoral areas where surface water sources are scarce and long dry periods are common.” An example here include Lake Mburo which is always a source of water for livestock for pastoralists during dry seasons. Without water, people and livestock would not be there or rather would not live a better economic life.

Lakes are also a source of craft materials, which are used in production of several crafts, such crafts including mats, traditional huts, and baskets among others are a source of income to people engaged in this activity.

This essay has observed that environmental commons in Uganda contribute significantly to the livelihoods of the local people and also help the government much in different ways mostly in revenue raising. This therefore calls on the people and government to take responsibility in owning communally and looking after environmental commons rather than leaving them to no one since their access is free and unrestricted.

REFERENCES:-
Chivas.D.D (2001) Environmental Science Creating Sustainable Feature (6th Edition). London: Jonies and Bartlett Publishers.

Krus.C (2000) Import Tarrifs as environmental policy instruments Kruuer Academic Publishers.

Mckenney.M.L and Schoch.R.M (2003). Environment Science systems and solutions (Third Edition). London: Jonies and Bartlett Publishers.

Narayin.D, Chambers.R,Shah.M.K,Petesch.P (2000) Voices of the poor crying out for change New York: Oxford University Press.

National Environment Management Authority (NEMA), (2001) State of the environment report 2000/2001. Kampala. Uganda

National Environment Management Authority (NEMA), 1998. Caring for our Environment and a handbook for local leaders. Kampala: Industrial Graphics Systems Ltd.

O’riordan.T (1997) Environmental Science for Environmental Management. Singapore Longman Group Ltd

Pearce.D.W and Tuner.R.K (1990) Economics of Natural Resources and Environment. Great Britain: John Hopkins University.
[1] An online encyclopedia