Should we “sell” the issues of environment the way we sell soap?
Mugira Fredrick
Environment is a concept of external factors that act on system and determines its course and form of existence (Wikipenda Encyclopedia: 2005). It can be summarized as man and his surroundings which encompass ecological, economical, aesthetic and ethical concerns.
Social marketing is a process of influencing human behavior, using marketing principles as a move intended to benefit the community. It utilizes techniques drawn from commercial advertising and market research and the social sciences (Mody, 2003)
Communication is the act of transmitting information, ideas and attitudes from one person to another. While tackling this question, I will base myself on Osgood and Schram (1954) Model of Communication which describes communication as an interactive act. This model describes communication as a process of exchange of knowledge between the source and receiver and that it is interactive and has feedback. (Mcquail, 2003)
The act of selling soap belongs to commercial marketing which is aimed at mostly profits making while the act of selling environment issues belongs to social markets which aims at social benefits.
Should we sell issues of the environment the way we sell soap?
Yes, it is important that similar techniques be used to sell the two products though they belong to different segments in marketing because the two are essential to man. Man can not live without using soap to wash and bathe as move designed to help him keep sanitation and hygiene similarly he needs environment to be able to get food, income, oxygen and several others necessary for him to live.
Secondary, successful marketing of the soap alike that of environmental issues base on a good program design, careful implantation, sufficient documentation and systematic evaluation to access success and failures. It would be unfair to base on these techniques when marketing soap and neglect them when marketing issues of environment. This would mean that this the campaign to conserve environment might fail.
Thirdly, in both types of marketing, you offer to the audience something they value in return. In the case of soap, a consumer pays his money in return for better quality of soap. This also applies to selling issues of environment. In selling issues of environment, the marketer and in this case who might be an n Environmental Organization offers to the targeted audience benefits that are valued by the community in return for their conservation efforts. An example is a campaign against degradation of Wetlands. Encroachment on wetlands causes water shortage because the water catchment areas are destroyed. Therefore an environmental campaign that successfully convinces the community to restore the degraded wetlands rewards the local people there with increased water supply as a result of presence of wetlands.
More still marketing of soap in the same like marketing of issues of environment calls for identification of audience that is being targeted. In marketing soap, a marketer identifies his audience who are capable of buying product soap and goes ahead to entice them to buy it, likewise in marketing environment issues, the environmental organization selects target audiences stakeholders who are affected by the problem and goes ahead to work with them to finds solutions to the problem. He or she, “must know how the audience is connected to the problem, and their current experience and knowledge of problem” (Susan, 1999; 87). This justifies why if I feel when marketing the two products, similar techniques should be taken because they have a targeted audience.
Furthermore, marketing of both products necessitates planning for the competitor. In marketing soap, the marketer plans for how to win his competitors who also sell the same products. For example if one is marketing Geisha soap, he will plan for how to over compete other brands of soaps like imperial and Detal soaps , equally in marketing environment issues, an environmental Organization plans for not duplicating services which are being offered or had already been offered by other organizations. The NGO does so by offering services that are different or enhanced more than other social workers/ NGOs are offering.
Besides, in both types of marketing, messages consist of both information and persuasion. “Persuasive elements of message” while selling a product such as soap “incorporate tactics such as fear, sexiness, or humor to influence their customers” (Susan, 1999,92), similarly as Susan goes ahead to write , this can work effectively in selling environmental issues:
Surprisingly, many environmental Organizations provide only information and neglect to include persuasive arguments in their massages. Persuasive arguments can work for conservation causes. Environmental organizations may exploit public fear by emphasizing the negative effects of not heeding their messages. (ibid)
Therefore if marketing of soap and issues of environment use the same techniques of persuading and information, why not sell them alike.
In addition, when one is marketing soap, he /she aims at the influencing the targeted audience to take action. Such action means the buying of soap by the targeted audience, likewise, in marketing environment issues, Environmental Organizations, want the audience to take action. Here, the action is conserving environment or restoring what has been degraded. This suggests that it is possible to market the soap and issues of environment using the same techniques.
Marketing of both soap and environment issues incorporate a range of similar tactics and approaches knows as “market Mix’. This involves identifying the place where to sell your product soap or environmental issues, secondary the cost that would be paid by the people buying soap or conserving the environment, whether the audience is capable of affording it and lastly a product which in this case is soap or issues of environment. If the market mix in marketing these two is the same then it can be possible to market them in a similar way.
Lastly, media, the channel of communication used in selling the either soap or environment issues does not segregate between the two. Both soap marketer and environmental organizations use similar techniques while dealing with the media as a tool of publicity to inform and persuade the audience what they are offering. They both have to use a channel of communication that is received by the targeted audience. There is also the use of a language which the targeted audience is well conversant with. This also indicates that it is possible to market soap and environment issues using the same techniques. (Susan,1999)
On the other side, it can not be taken for wholesomely that Soap and Issues of environment can be can be sold in a similar ways because whereas in marketing soap , a marketer aims at selling his product which is soap, in selling environment issues , Environmental organizations , aim at changing the audiences knowledge , attitudes and behaviors.
Secondly, in selling of issues of environment, one focuses on biological problems, and the solutions lie with people who are audience, whereas in commercial marketing, there are no problems which one is aiming at combating but rather aims at selling off his product and incase the targeted audience refuses to buy the product, it will only affect the profits of the marketer but not the entire community that was targeted like it is incase of selling environment issues.
In marketing environment issues, one can be compelled to use punitive measures if need be for example if the audience does not take hid however, in marketing soap, this is not applicable.
More still, soap is tangible and the consumer can see what he is buying there and then however in selling environmental issues, the consumer does not immediately get a tangible product in return for services. It takes years to realize the benefits such as if the campaign is on planting trees, it may take years for trees to grow and give returns to the audience.
Lastly, it is easy to frequently package soap and brand it in new forms which can attract the buyers however this is difficult in selling environmental issues because the good being traded is not tangible.
In conclusion, like soap is essential to man, environment is essential too. This makes me to strongly believe that we should “sell” issues of environment the way we sell soap. It would be catastrophic if marketers concentrated on using the best techniques in marketing of sell soap and Environmental NGOs neglected the similar techniques in selling issues of environment. This would mean that the campaign to conserve environment would fail, which could subsequently lead to degradation of environment.
References
Leslie R (2003) Development Communication Campaign, in Bella Mody (ed) International and development communication. A 21st century Perspective, Sage publication, Inc London.
Mcquail D,(2003) Mcquail’s Mass communication Theory, 4th edition , Sage Publication London.
Susan J, 1999 Communication skills for conservation professionals. Island place New York.
www.en.wikipenda.org/wiki/environment (accessed on 31st October 2005)
Friday, August 18, 2006
Major factors contributing to changes in the traditional gender division of labor in Africa
Mugira Fredrick
This essay discusses what I feel are six major factors that have contributed to changes in the traditional gender division of labor in Africa.
It is based on the activity profile, centered on the factor that females and males in a community have different traditional roles to play. Most of the examples and experiences used in this essay are dawned from Kalangala district[1] of Uganda. Kalangala district consist of 84 Islands. All these Islands are found in Lake Victoria. According to the latest Uganda population census, Kalangala district has a total population of 34,907 with 20,886 males and 14,021 females
Traditionally, females and males played different roles in the community. There are roles that were seen and are still seen as for males alone and those that are viewed at as belonging to females alone. As Narayan et al (2000:115) argue, “man (was seen) as the provider for the family and the woman taking care of the home.” This draws attention to the fact that society naturally distributed roles that fell under the brackets of production of goods and services , activities done at a community level, and decision making to different people depending on their gender identity or rather what Gregson et al (1997:53) cited in Hatfield ( 2003:3) call, “male or female.”
Women for example have been known traditionally to be engaged much in home chores such as cooking, caring for children and washing of clothes among others.
Wilkins (2005:266) writes, “over all women are constituted in most passive roles.” Meanwhile males are also traditionally viewed at as playing several roles in the society such as being decision makers and breadwinners of the family. However, as Narayan et al (2000:109) write, “women’s and men’s roles are going through major changes.” This draws attention to the fact that females and males are now playing roles in the society which were traditionally not theirs.
It is important to note that these changes in traditional gender division of labour have not only affected men and women but also youths and children.
As Narayan et al (2000:111) note, “…Women are stepping outside of their household responsibilities to earn a living and help bring food to the table.”
Narayan et al (2000:116) further argue that, “there are also cases of almost complete role reversal, with the men assuming the bulk of cooking, cleaning and looking after children.”
Several factors have led to these changes in the traditional gender division of labor in Africa and the world over .The remaining part of this essay discusses these factors.
The first factor is the application of Alternative Development Paradigm to bring sustainable development of communities especially those in the southern parts of the globe.
Following the failure of modernization and dependency development paradigms, alternative development paradigm which Pieterse (2002:74) notes that implys, “a definite theoretical break with main stream development”, has been employed to bring about an end to misery as a result of underdevelopment in the community.
This paradigm is pro - people and as Pieterse (2002:750) puts it, it is “participatory and people centered.” It gives a chance to everyone regardless of gender and age to participate in development process. With this paradigm, females are seen as patterns of males in bringing about development at household, community and national levels. Females and more especially women are no longer taken as Wilkins (2005:267) argues,
“ ...as individuals within a pluralist society, rather as members of a shared collective with the power to mobilize ,act and resist.”
This has subsequently led to a change in the traditional gender division of labor in Africa due to the fact that it emphasizes on the need for collective efforts in bring about development in communities. It overlooks gender differences.
This same development paradigm has led to establishment of several programs designed to benefit women and girls. This has subsequently led to their empowerment and they now see themselves as persons who can compete with females in any fields.
More still with this development paradigm, females are no longer seen as people supposed to engage in passive and un paying jobs. They have now joined their husbands to be breadwinners too. Side by side with their husbands, the females are now helping their husbands to raise families by doing roles that were traditionally meant for males. Now women are engaged in activities like petty trade, such as selling of fish which was noticed in Kalangala district. Children and women are now engaged in causal labor especially in agricultural sector. This was also witnessed in Kalangala district. Several other females are engaged in factory employment and service sector jobs such as the girls who are working as service providers in Kalangala beaches for example as waitresses. Most of these jobs were traditionally meant for males.
The second factor contributing to changes in the traditional gender division of labor in Africa is poverty.
Poverty needs to be fought from two sides as a move intended to eradicate it successfully. As Narayan et al (2000:11) argue, “in several places, people stress that the poorer the household, the more likely it is that the women will be involved in some form of work outside the household.” With poverty, females have given up their traditional roles and ventured into males’ roles to supplement their family’s income, likewise males have ventured in females’ jobs to earn a living a result of poverty and unemployment.
An example here can be the profession of nursing which was traditional seen as belonging to females, however, several males have now joined it to earn a living.
Narayan et al (2000:110) note that, “with increased economic hardships and rising male employments, poor women are working outside the home in large numbers to supplement, sometimes very substantially household budgets.”
In an interview with Jessica Nachanzi aged 40, a housewife I found at Nakatiba “dead” lagoon in Kalangala, she told me, she has resorted to burning charcoal from trees cut down by people clearing forests in Kalangala to pave way for BIDCO palm trees planting project. She attributed her shift to charcoal burning, a job seen traditionally to be belonging to men, to the fact that she has to look after her children, two of whom she had by her side during this interview. She stressed that her husband could not do this alone.
Another example is that of women who are operating shops at Nakatiba landing site in Kalangala district. Three of them I interviewed by names of Faridah, Namamutebi, and Allen stressed that their move to join this work which was traditionally seen as for men as is intended to help them supplement their husbands’ income. Likewise Neft and Levine, (1997), Steevens (2000) cited in Wilkins (2005:262) argue that “ women are more likely than men to suffer from poverty, with their access restricted to critical education , health employment and political.” This draws attention to the fact that some females have no alternative but to take on jobs, even if they are for men, so that they can earn a living and fight poverty affecting them which is hindering them from living a better life.
It is important to note that as women earn more money, they tend to play bigger roles in household decision-making, a role traditionally meant for males /husbands. Narayan et al (2000:111) drive this point home when they write that, “in Ghana, Malawi, Nigeria and Zambia, a positive link is found between women’s earning capacity and their role in household decision.”
Likewise, children who have money nowadays are taking on the role of decision makers in their families from their parents because they have money which and as the saying goes ‘money talks’.
Poverty therefore contributes to changes in the traditional gender division of labor in Africa in such a way that it makes particular people to take on roles that were not traditionally their as they try to fight it. It also puts some people in a situation where by they surrender some of their roles to those who can manage them properly especially if this concerns money.
Thirdly, education has also contributed to changes in the traditional gender division of labor in Africa. With increased education of females, the job market is now democratic. It welcomes all sexes, male or female. What decides now is not gender but qualifications. With education, as Narayan, et al (2000:112) writes “… women have opportunities for jobs than men now.” In most job adverts employers encourage women to apply as longer as they qualify.
Several females in Africa are now engaged in jobs like engineering. More than a few ladies put on pairs of trousers and do men’s work such as climbing of Radio and television masks to repair them. All this has been caused by education of women, who now see themselves as not different from men in terms of what they can offer, after all they are qualified. With education still, women are increasingly seeking equity and demanding for their rights which has subsequently caused major changes in gender division of labour. Kalangala’s district information Officer, Twaha Matovu[2] told me in an interview that about 30 percent of Kalangala district workers are females. He said most of these females got these jobs on merit because they had qualifications. How could these females acquire these jobs surely with out education qualifications? Education has revolutionarized everything.
Deaths have also contributed to changes in the traditional gender division of labor in Africa. With increased killer diseases in Africa, such as HIV/Aids, Malaria and Ebola, deaths of heads of families have been rampant. When death takes way the male head of a family who has been fulfilling the duty of breadwinner, a wife (widow) has no alternative but rather to taken on the roles of her deceased husband. This as Narayan et al (2000:114) elaborates is, “resulting in a new phenomenon of women becoming their families’ chief breadwinners.”
However, in incidences where women also later succumb to death, children now assume the roles of heads of their families, and they become breadwinners. Such a thing is happening in Rakai district and several areas in Africa. Traditionally, children and women are not supposed to be heads of families. Among the women and some youths I interviewed in Kalangala district during out tour there, no one told me she/he was working because of the death of her/his head of family however at least two women at Nakatiba Landing site, told me they have some friends who are working because their husbands have died.
The fifth factor contributing to changes in the traditional gender division of labor in Africa is concerned with coming up of the increased gender movements which emphasize especially on female empowerment. The last 40 years have seen several movements spring up meant mostly to end inequalities and discrimination based and gender differences.
Movements like Gender Equity Empowerment Framework, Gender and Development, Movement towards recognizing Woman’s roles in Development (WID) have all led to changes in gender division of labor in Africa with mostly females being brought up to limelight to compete with males in several positions . Such movements have helped to address gender gaps at various levels and subsequently led to increased access of females to education, access to information and control of resources and benefits.
This has subsequently led to a change in traditional division of labor with more females getting involved in activities originally meant for males.
At Nakatiba landing site in Kalangala district, a lady one Getrude Nabugela owns a
‘fish table’, or rather a place where fish is collected from after being brought from the lake. At this place, fish is cleaned and packed for sell in local and international markets.
In an interview with Nabugela who was dressed in a pair of trousers, speaking in the local language Luganda , she stressed with emphasis that “ there are no jobs meant for men alone, women are able to taken on any jobs as long as they are sensitized and shown how to do them”. This I attribute it to the fact that gender empowerment movements have helped to empower Nabugela to the extent that she sees herself as no different from men in terms of what to offer to society , she told me she employs 54 males at her ‘fish table’.
Lastly with globalization, or rather the shrinking of the world into one village with several interconnecting networks, there has been tremendous free flow of ideas from individuals to individuals, countries to countries and continent to continent.
This is causing several things including changes in the traditional Gender division of labor. With Globalization and its free flow of information, cultures in Africa and in countries belonging to ‘South’[3] , such as those that emphasize on traditional gender roles are quickly disappearing and those of the people in the ‘North’ are displacing them. Western culture imperialism is gradually and slowly taking roots displacing cultures of the local people. Indigenous traditions, cultures and norms are now seen as local , bad and sometimes inhumane.
This has for example caused women in Africa to copy the lifestyle of their counterparts in Western countries. An example here could be the ‘Single mothers’ phenomena where by some women no longer consider marriage important. This has led to such women to take on roles of males as a move intended to look after their families.
Furthermore African children, who traditionally, used to be under their parents as their helpers, with globalization they have now been poisoned by the western culture.
They tend to see themselves equal with their parents and some of them no longer want to submit to their parents. This indirectly means that the roles they used to perform in the society are slowly changing because if they see such roles as being oppressive, they have a right to refuse them. Such a thing was unheard of in the traditional African culture.
It is also important to note that globalization has also made trade and commerce easier and much rewarding. This has attracted several females to join this field as move intended to earn a living. With globalization nothing has been left un changed, right from the youngest member of the society to the oldest, all have experienced either the bad or good changes which globalization has inflicted onto their society. This surely has not spared the traditional gender division of labor in Africa.
Take an example of the spread of the culture of homosexuality in Africa. This has surely turned males into females and females into males as far as ‘bed activities[4]’ are concerned. Globalization is to blame here.
All in all, with increased advocacy for sustainable development, several factors have taken place and most of them have led to changes in the traditional gender division of labor, in Africa, and several other continents. However, means employed to achieve sustainable development have to observe and respect culture and norms of the masses if they are to succeed. This does not mean to leave some particular gender out of the development circles but rather engage them with respect to their culture.
References
Creedon, P.J. (1993). The challenges of re-visioning Gender Values. In P.J .Creedon (ed.) Women in Mass communication (2nd ed). (pp.-23). California : Sage Publications lnc.
In T. Skelton and T, Allen (ed.). Culture and Global Change (pp.1-10) New York: Routledge.
Interviews I had with some residents of Kalangala between 24-26 March 2006 during a study tour for Postgraduate Environmental Journalism and Communication students of Makerere University 2005/6.
Narayan , N. Chambers , R. Shan , M. K. Petesch , P. (2000) .Voices of the Poor Crying Out of Change. Washington: Oxford press.
Pieterse, J.N.(2002). Development Theory Deconstructions /Reconstructions.
Skelton T, and Allen T (2005).Culture and Global change an introduction. London: Sage Publications
Wikipedia encyclopedia at http://www.wikipedia.com/ accessed on 1st April 2006.
Wilkins, K .G. (2005). Out of focus: Gender visibilities in development. In O. Hemer and T. Tufte (ed). Media and Global Change Rethinking Communication for Development (PP.261-270) . Buenos Aires: Nordicon
[1] I use Kalangala district following a study tour I had there between 24th to 26th of March 2006.
[2] Twaha Matovu was our tour guide while in Kalangala district.
[3] South is used to identify undeveloped countries. Its opposite is North with refers to developed countries.
[4] In other words intercourse
Mugira Fredrick
This essay discusses what I feel are six major factors that have contributed to changes in the traditional gender division of labor in Africa.
It is based on the activity profile, centered on the factor that females and males in a community have different traditional roles to play. Most of the examples and experiences used in this essay are dawned from Kalangala district[1] of Uganda. Kalangala district consist of 84 Islands. All these Islands are found in Lake Victoria. According to the latest Uganda population census, Kalangala district has a total population of 34,907 with 20,886 males and 14,021 females
Traditionally, females and males played different roles in the community. There are roles that were seen and are still seen as for males alone and those that are viewed at as belonging to females alone. As Narayan et al (2000:115) argue, “man (was seen) as the provider for the family and the woman taking care of the home.” This draws attention to the fact that society naturally distributed roles that fell under the brackets of production of goods and services , activities done at a community level, and decision making to different people depending on their gender identity or rather what Gregson et al (1997:53) cited in Hatfield ( 2003:3) call, “male or female.”
Women for example have been known traditionally to be engaged much in home chores such as cooking, caring for children and washing of clothes among others.
Wilkins (2005:266) writes, “over all women are constituted in most passive roles.” Meanwhile males are also traditionally viewed at as playing several roles in the society such as being decision makers and breadwinners of the family. However, as Narayan et al (2000:109) write, “women’s and men’s roles are going through major changes.” This draws attention to the fact that females and males are now playing roles in the society which were traditionally not theirs.
It is important to note that these changes in traditional gender division of labour have not only affected men and women but also youths and children.
As Narayan et al (2000:111) note, “…Women are stepping outside of their household responsibilities to earn a living and help bring food to the table.”
Narayan et al (2000:116) further argue that, “there are also cases of almost complete role reversal, with the men assuming the bulk of cooking, cleaning and looking after children.”
Several factors have led to these changes in the traditional gender division of labor in Africa and the world over .The remaining part of this essay discusses these factors.
The first factor is the application of Alternative Development Paradigm to bring sustainable development of communities especially those in the southern parts of the globe.
Following the failure of modernization and dependency development paradigms, alternative development paradigm which Pieterse (2002:74) notes that implys, “a definite theoretical break with main stream development”, has been employed to bring about an end to misery as a result of underdevelopment in the community.
This paradigm is pro - people and as Pieterse (2002:750) puts it, it is “participatory and people centered.” It gives a chance to everyone regardless of gender and age to participate in development process. With this paradigm, females are seen as patterns of males in bringing about development at household, community and national levels. Females and more especially women are no longer taken as Wilkins (2005:267) argues,
“ ...as individuals within a pluralist society, rather as members of a shared collective with the power to mobilize ,act and resist.”
This has subsequently led to a change in the traditional gender division of labor in Africa due to the fact that it emphasizes on the need for collective efforts in bring about development in communities. It overlooks gender differences.
This same development paradigm has led to establishment of several programs designed to benefit women and girls. This has subsequently led to their empowerment and they now see themselves as persons who can compete with females in any fields.
More still with this development paradigm, females are no longer seen as people supposed to engage in passive and un paying jobs. They have now joined their husbands to be breadwinners too. Side by side with their husbands, the females are now helping their husbands to raise families by doing roles that were traditionally meant for males. Now women are engaged in activities like petty trade, such as selling of fish which was noticed in Kalangala district. Children and women are now engaged in causal labor especially in agricultural sector. This was also witnessed in Kalangala district. Several other females are engaged in factory employment and service sector jobs such as the girls who are working as service providers in Kalangala beaches for example as waitresses. Most of these jobs were traditionally meant for males.
The second factor contributing to changes in the traditional gender division of labor in Africa is poverty.
Poverty needs to be fought from two sides as a move intended to eradicate it successfully. As Narayan et al (2000:11) argue, “in several places, people stress that the poorer the household, the more likely it is that the women will be involved in some form of work outside the household.” With poverty, females have given up their traditional roles and ventured into males’ roles to supplement their family’s income, likewise males have ventured in females’ jobs to earn a living a result of poverty and unemployment.
An example here can be the profession of nursing which was traditional seen as belonging to females, however, several males have now joined it to earn a living.
Narayan et al (2000:110) note that, “with increased economic hardships and rising male employments, poor women are working outside the home in large numbers to supplement, sometimes very substantially household budgets.”
In an interview with Jessica Nachanzi aged 40, a housewife I found at Nakatiba “dead” lagoon in Kalangala, she told me, she has resorted to burning charcoal from trees cut down by people clearing forests in Kalangala to pave way for BIDCO palm trees planting project. She attributed her shift to charcoal burning, a job seen traditionally to be belonging to men, to the fact that she has to look after her children, two of whom she had by her side during this interview. She stressed that her husband could not do this alone.
Another example is that of women who are operating shops at Nakatiba landing site in Kalangala district. Three of them I interviewed by names of Faridah, Namamutebi, and Allen stressed that their move to join this work which was traditionally seen as for men as is intended to help them supplement their husbands’ income. Likewise Neft and Levine, (1997), Steevens (2000) cited in Wilkins (2005:262) argue that “ women are more likely than men to suffer from poverty, with their access restricted to critical education , health employment and political.” This draws attention to the fact that some females have no alternative but to take on jobs, even if they are for men, so that they can earn a living and fight poverty affecting them which is hindering them from living a better life.
It is important to note that as women earn more money, they tend to play bigger roles in household decision-making, a role traditionally meant for males /husbands. Narayan et al (2000:111) drive this point home when they write that, “in Ghana, Malawi, Nigeria and Zambia, a positive link is found between women’s earning capacity and their role in household decision.”
Likewise, children who have money nowadays are taking on the role of decision makers in their families from their parents because they have money which and as the saying goes ‘money talks’.
Poverty therefore contributes to changes in the traditional gender division of labor in Africa in such a way that it makes particular people to take on roles that were not traditionally their as they try to fight it. It also puts some people in a situation where by they surrender some of their roles to those who can manage them properly especially if this concerns money.
Thirdly, education has also contributed to changes in the traditional gender division of labor in Africa. With increased education of females, the job market is now democratic. It welcomes all sexes, male or female. What decides now is not gender but qualifications. With education, as Narayan, et al (2000:112) writes “… women have opportunities for jobs than men now.” In most job adverts employers encourage women to apply as longer as they qualify.
Several females in Africa are now engaged in jobs like engineering. More than a few ladies put on pairs of trousers and do men’s work such as climbing of Radio and television masks to repair them. All this has been caused by education of women, who now see themselves as not different from men in terms of what they can offer, after all they are qualified. With education still, women are increasingly seeking equity and demanding for their rights which has subsequently caused major changes in gender division of labour. Kalangala’s district information Officer, Twaha Matovu[2] told me in an interview that about 30 percent of Kalangala district workers are females. He said most of these females got these jobs on merit because they had qualifications. How could these females acquire these jobs surely with out education qualifications? Education has revolutionarized everything.
Deaths have also contributed to changes in the traditional gender division of labor in Africa. With increased killer diseases in Africa, such as HIV/Aids, Malaria and Ebola, deaths of heads of families have been rampant. When death takes way the male head of a family who has been fulfilling the duty of breadwinner, a wife (widow) has no alternative but rather to taken on the roles of her deceased husband. This as Narayan et al (2000:114) elaborates is, “resulting in a new phenomenon of women becoming their families’ chief breadwinners.”
However, in incidences where women also later succumb to death, children now assume the roles of heads of their families, and they become breadwinners. Such a thing is happening in Rakai district and several areas in Africa. Traditionally, children and women are not supposed to be heads of families. Among the women and some youths I interviewed in Kalangala district during out tour there, no one told me she/he was working because of the death of her/his head of family however at least two women at Nakatiba Landing site, told me they have some friends who are working because their husbands have died.
The fifth factor contributing to changes in the traditional gender division of labor in Africa is concerned with coming up of the increased gender movements which emphasize especially on female empowerment. The last 40 years have seen several movements spring up meant mostly to end inequalities and discrimination based and gender differences.
Movements like Gender Equity Empowerment Framework, Gender and Development, Movement towards recognizing Woman’s roles in Development (WID) have all led to changes in gender division of labor in Africa with mostly females being brought up to limelight to compete with males in several positions . Such movements have helped to address gender gaps at various levels and subsequently led to increased access of females to education, access to information and control of resources and benefits.
This has subsequently led to a change in traditional division of labor with more females getting involved in activities originally meant for males.
At Nakatiba landing site in Kalangala district, a lady one Getrude Nabugela owns a
‘fish table’, or rather a place where fish is collected from after being brought from the lake. At this place, fish is cleaned and packed for sell in local and international markets.
In an interview with Nabugela who was dressed in a pair of trousers, speaking in the local language Luganda , she stressed with emphasis that “ there are no jobs meant for men alone, women are able to taken on any jobs as long as they are sensitized and shown how to do them”. This I attribute it to the fact that gender empowerment movements have helped to empower Nabugela to the extent that she sees herself as no different from men in terms of what to offer to society , she told me she employs 54 males at her ‘fish table’.
Lastly with globalization, or rather the shrinking of the world into one village with several interconnecting networks, there has been tremendous free flow of ideas from individuals to individuals, countries to countries and continent to continent.
This is causing several things including changes in the traditional Gender division of labor. With Globalization and its free flow of information, cultures in Africa and in countries belonging to ‘South’[3] , such as those that emphasize on traditional gender roles are quickly disappearing and those of the people in the ‘North’ are displacing them. Western culture imperialism is gradually and slowly taking roots displacing cultures of the local people. Indigenous traditions, cultures and norms are now seen as local , bad and sometimes inhumane.
This has for example caused women in Africa to copy the lifestyle of their counterparts in Western countries. An example here could be the ‘Single mothers’ phenomena where by some women no longer consider marriage important. This has led to such women to take on roles of males as a move intended to look after their families.
Furthermore African children, who traditionally, used to be under their parents as their helpers, with globalization they have now been poisoned by the western culture.
They tend to see themselves equal with their parents and some of them no longer want to submit to their parents. This indirectly means that the roles they used to perform in the society are slowly changing because if they see such roles as being oppressive, they have a right to refuse them. Such a thing was unheard of in the traditional African culture.
It is also important to note that globalization has also made trade and commerce easier and much rewarding. This has attracted several females to join this field as move intended to earn a living. With globalization nothing has been left un changed, right from the youngest member of the society to the oldest, all have experienced either the bad or good changes which globalization has inflicted onto their society. This surely has not spared the traditional gender division of labor in Africa.
Take an example of the spread of the culture of homosexuality in Africa. This has surely turned males into females and females into males as far as ‘bed activities[4]’ are concerned. Globalization is to blame here.
All in all, with increased advocacy for sustainable development, several factors have taken place and most of them have led to changes in the traditional gender division of labor, in Africa, and several other continents. However, means employed to achieve sustainable development have to observe and respect culture and norms of the masses if they are to succeed. This does not mean to leave some particular gender out of the development circles but rather engage them with respect to their culture.
References
Creedon, P.J. (1993). The challenges of re-visioning Gender Values. In P.J .Creedon (ed.) Women in Mass communication (2nd ed). (pp.-23). California : Sage Publications lnc.
In T. Skelton and T, Allen (ed.). Culture and Global Change (pp.1-10) New York: Routledge.
Interviews I had with some residents of Kalangala between 24-26 March 2006 during a study tour for Postgraduate Environmental Journalism and Communication students of Makerere University 2005/6.
Narayan , N. Chambers , R. Shan , M. K. Petesch , P. (2000) .Voices of the Poor Crying Out of Change. Washington: Oxford press.
Pieterse, J.N.(2002). Development Theory Deconstructions /Reconstructions.
Skelton T, and Allen T (2005).Culture and Global change an introduction. London: Sage Publications
Wikipedia encyclopedia at http://www.wikipedia.com/ accessed on 1st April 2006.
Wilkins, K .G. (2005). Out of focus: Gender visibilities in development. In O. Hemer and T. Tufte (ed). Media and Global Change Rethinking Communication for Development (PP.261-270) . Buenos Aires: Nordicon
[1] I use Kalangala district following a study tour I had there between 24th to 26th of March 2006.
[2] Twaha Matovu was our tour guide while in Kalangala district.
[3] South is used to identify undeveloped countries. Its opposite is North with refers to developed countries.
[4] In other words intercourse
Thursday, August 17, 2006
Assessing the role of international environmental law in
controlling climate change.
controlling climate change.
Mugira Fredrick
This essay focuses on the role of the international environmental law in controlling climate change worldwide. Most of the examples used in this essay are drawn from Uganda
According to Wikipedia encyclopedia[1], international environmental law can de defined as the, “body of International law that concerns the protection of global environment.”
This draws attention to the fact that international environmental law includes several international laws, which are put together aiming at protection of the environment.
This is in line with Birnie and Boyle (2003: 1) who note that international environmental law is, “a body of law more specifically aimed at protection of the environment.”
It is important to note that as Birnie and Boyle (2003:11) further write international environmental law is not alone in itself but rather it is, “simply a branch of general international law,” which has its foundation as World Bank (2004) notes, “in the 16th and 17th centuries law that was created to govern the diplomatic, commercial, military and other relations of the society of Christian states.”
The international environmental law development can be traced from what World Bank (2002) calls “two main phase,” which range from “1972-1992 which was the period of burgeoning international environmental consciousness surrounding and following the UN Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm in 1972, and from 1992, onwards,” through these years, several conventions and treaties have been signed by nations in a move intended to protest environment.
World Bank (2004) note that the development of international environmental law which it defines as “the body of the international law relevant to environmental issues,” comes as a result of, “globalization of environmental problems, and concerns, attributed to two crucially interrelated factors, ecological and economic interdependence.”
In other words , as the world becomes one global village, people or rather inhabitants are seeing environment as one common resource they share hence a need to protect it jointly.
As Steinway et al (2003) note such laws and requirements address issues ranging from natural environment, including air, water and land and further more how humans interact with these resources and ecological system.
International environmental law has several functions it plays as it endeavors to protect environment. It is important to note that as Birnie and Boyle ( 2002:7) note, the functions of, “international laws in protecting the environment is not fundamentally different from or any less varied than, domestic environmental law.” In other words the two branches of law seem to be playing similar roles since they all aim at protection of environment.
Among other functions, international environmental law, as Birnie and Boyle (2002:7) write, “facilitates and promotes cooperation between states, international organizations and non governmental organizations and constitutes the processes of international environmental governance.” This draws attention to the fact that international environmental law brings together countries which are signatories to such laws. They see themselves as members of one family and in the end this promotes cooperation.
It is important to note that as its first aim, international environmental law, has a function to protect misuse, over exploitation, degradation and destruction of environment. This is in turn helps to conserve the environment which is necessary for any sustainable development.
International environmental law further plays a function of regulating environmental problems. Ibid (2002:7) note that, “like national environmental law, much of international environmental law is concerned with regulating environmental problems, settling common international standards and objectives for prevention or mitigation of harm and providing a flexible rule making process.”
As Birnier and Boyle (2002:7) write, international environmental law, as any other international law, “provides mechanism and procedures for negotiating the necessary rules and standards, settling disputes, and supervising implementation, and compliance with treaties and customary rules.” In other words, it helps to set standards on which environmental conservation is founded. With it therefore, states challenge actions of other states in regard to environment abuse by referring to it.
States also defend their actions or policies by referring to it. In this, international environmental law therefore plays a role of settling disputes.
It helps in compensating those who suffer damage. By the virtue of the fact that international environmental law makes nations answerable for their international environmental crimes, those whose environment suffer damage caused by individuals or government in other countries can use the international environmental law to seek for redress and in the end could get compensated.
More still, as Birnie and Boyle (2002:8) state, international environmental law, helps to “harmonize national laws, either globally or regionally.” This draws attention to the fact that international environmental law leads a situation where by countries that subscribe to it have somehow similar laws towards protection of environment. This is as a result of nations replicating the provisions in the international environmental law.
Lastly the international environmental law also plays a function of monitoring and reporting on environment by nations, Birnie and Boyle (2002:205) note that, “most treaties require states to make periodic reports on matters affecting the treaty.” By doing this, governments monitor their environment and report what is happening to it accordingly.
There are several sources of international environmental however as Wikipedia encyclopedia notes, “there have been many legally binding international agreements concerning the protection of the environment but in this area of international law, soft law is more common than normal.” World Bank (2004) defines soft law as comprising of “non binding instruments that lay down guidelines for future action, or through which states commit themselves politically to meeting certain objectives.” In other words soft law bases on international diplomacy and customs and what is considered morally acceptable by the majority.
Birnie and Boyle (2002:10) give a summary of the source of international environmental law that, “much of international environmental law is the product of an essentially legislative process involving the interplay of international organizations , conferences, diplomacy, codification and progressive development and international courts and relatively subtle interplay of treaties , non binding declarations or resolutions and customary international law.”
According to article 38(1) of the statute of the international court of justice, sources of international law include international convections (treaties) general principles of law recognized in civilized nations, customary international law, judicial decisions and the teachings of the most highly qualified publicists.
International conventions (treaties) come in to existence after international negotiations over matters of common concern. This results in agreement in form of text that usually reflects mutual advantages. The text is agreed upon and signed and after the wanted number of signatories reaches, the convention comes into force.
General principles of law recognized in civilized nations, include norms available and acceptable to the states to regulate their international relations.
International customary law is according to the statute of the international court of justice the, “general practice accepted as law” by nations. World Bank (2004) notes that, “it is something that states do because they regard themselves as legally obliged to do it.”
This draws attention to the fact that international customary law is established by the consistent compliancy by state over time.
Judicial decisions, as a source of international law originate from decisions made by international court of justice and other tribunals.
The writings and teachings of the most highly qualified publicist would include writings of professors and UN reports .
However Birnie and Boyle (2002;12 ) suggest other candidates for international environmental law to include “ General Assembly resolutions , declarations of principles adopted by the UN or by adhoc UN and other conferences, treaty provisions agreed by general consensus among the majority of state but not yet in force, and the proposals of the international law commission.”
There are 3 major conventions which are important in controlling climate change. These include United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Kyoto Protocol and United Nations Convention on Controlling Desertification. The provisions of these 3 conventions have helped much worldwide to combat activities that would have increased climate change.
Climate change Wikipedia encyclopedia refers to the “variation in the Earth's global climate or regional climates over time. It describes changes in the variability or average state of the atmosphere - or average weather - over time scales ranging from decades to millions of years.” Such changes sometimes are dangerous and cause disasters such El Nino and desertification while others are seen as helpful.
Below I discuss these 3 convections and some of their provisions that are playing important roles in controlling climate change.
According to UNFCCC (2003), evidence of human interference with climate first came up in 1979 at the World Climate Conference and as years went by countries developed much concern over environmental issues. In 1988 the United Nations General Assembly adopted resolution 43/53, which was proposed by the government of Malta calling for protection of global climate for present and future generations.
In the same year the United Nations Environment Program and World Meteorological Organization formed a new body called the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change which was aimed at studying scientifically the threat of climate change. In 1990, the first report of this panel confirmed the threat of climate change as being real.
The second World Climate Conference in Geneva in 1990 called for creation of a global treaty to combat climate change and the General Assembly passed resolution 45/212 launching negotiations on a convention on climate change to be concluded by an
Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee (INC).
The representatives of INC adopted the United Nations Framework Convection on Climate Change on 9th May 1992 and was opened for signature at the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro. It later entered into force on 21st March 1994.
UNEP and UNFCCC (2002:18) identify the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change as, “the foundation of global efforts to combat global warning.”
The ultimate objective of the convention is to stabilize greenhouse gas concentration in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous human induced interference with the climate system.
The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change plays several roles in the countries that have ratified, accepted approved or acceded to it.
The first and foremost in that UNFCCC provides for sustainability managing of carbon sink. it helps in bringing into existence forests and other ecosystems that help in absorbing green house gases from the atmosphere hence reducing it. Green house gases damage ozone layer which is responsible for regulating the amount of sunshine reaching the earth. A damaged ozone layer would let a lot of heat from sun reach earth hence causing increased heat on the earth which leads to global warming and subsequently climate change. However with carbon sink in place as UNFCCC calls for, such a situation might not happen since green house gases would in the atmosphere would be remove by forests and other ecosystems.
Secondly, UNFCCC provides for developing and transferring of environmentally friendly technologies especially from developed to low developed countries. This helps the low developed counties to increase their capacity to fight causes of climate change.
Such technology includes the appropriate technology that does not emit a lot of green house gases .
Thirdly, UNFCCC helps member countries to prepare to adapt to climate change. In other words it alerts them early enough and by the time climate change, happens, it doesn’t affect them as much as it would have been, if they no alerts were made. Examples here include the times when heavy rains or drought are going to happen and people are warned before such as to plant crops early enough.
It further promotes education, training and public awareness concerning climate change. This helps local people in the member countries to know the dangers of climate change, and what they should do to control it and subsequently if they out what they have been told into practice, climate change is fought or minimized.
More still, UNFCCC obliges its member countries to engage in climate research, observations of the global climate system and information exchange. This is turn helps member countries to keep informed about development s in climate change
Researchers in climate change in particular make them knowledgeable and armed with more facts of what causes and results of climate change and other related eventualities . With such knowledge, it is easy to plan for control measures of climate change.
Lastly NFCCC helps member countries to put in place mitigation measures to climate change. It is important to note that before severe climate change is to happen , such countries are in the know and when even it happens , countries affected are helped in over coming it say with aid inform of funds and other resources.
Kyoto protocol is also one of the convection aimed at controlling climate change. Kyoto protocol is what UNFCCC (2003:4) calls, “a substantial extension to the NFCCC that outlined legally binding commitments.” It was adopted in Kyoto Japan in December 1997.
It focuses on largely binding green house gases emission targets for countries especially for the developed countries . This is aimed at arresting and reversing the upward trend in green house gas emission.
In addition to the above role of controlling the emission of green house gases by mostly the developed countries, Kyoto protocol also plays several other roles in controlling climate change.
It promotes environmentally friendly technology transfer especially from developed nations to those still developing. Such technology helps the developing nations to effectively with much ease control climate change. These technologies also help the developing countries not to follow the same suit of developed countries which is now seen as not being environmentally friendly.
Secondly, Kyoto protocol promotes cooperation in science research and international climate observation networks, this helps in member countries to get information and mostly relevant information on climate change and what is happening to climate. This in turn equips nations, with information to use in controlling climate change.
Thirdly, Kyoto protocol provides for supporting education , training , public awareness and capacity building initiatives . All these help to equip the masses in member countries with skills necessary for controlling climate change.
It also helps nations to establish and put in practice, national mitigation and adaptation programmes all aimed at controlling climate change. Such programmes help the masses in member countries to do all they can to control climate change and also to find ways of how they can deal with the condition s brought about by climate change.
The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) is another convection aimed at controlling climate change through combating desertification. It was adopted in June 1994 and opened to signature from October 1994 to October 1995, it came into force on 26th of December 1996.
UNCCD plays several roles in combating climate change.
Firstly, it provides the country parties affected by desertification in Africa. Asia,
Latin America, Caribbean and Northern Mediterranean to prepare programs and put them in action all aimed at combating desertification. Such programmes included national strategies of planting trees.
The same countries are obliged to cooperate at the regional and sub regional levels in combating desertification. This in turn helps them to share information and skills on combating desertification through cooperation especially in collection, analysis and exchange of information concerning desertification. This also promotes an integrated approach in fighting desertification
Secondly , through the convention, developed country parties support affected countries by providing financial resources and facilitating access to appropriate technology .knowledge and know how. Financial support from developed countries help the affected countries to establish mitigation, measures to desertification.
Like wise, appropriate technology and knowledge helps the affected countries to effectively combat desertification. It is important to note that this convention helps Low Developed countries to improve access to relevant technologies and data.
The convention also provides for capacity building and awareness building, which equips the masses in member countries with information necessary for combating desertification. Local masses are made aware about desertification and its dangers.
However there are several limitations which hinder nations and in this particular case, Uganda in applying these 3 international conventions and others in general.
Some of these limitations include lack of enough funds to implement all programs called for by these conventions such as those aiming at reducing transport sector emissions and enhancing energy efficiency. This is because Uganda is a poor country. Is sometimes sees such programs as not being a priority but rather fighting poverty comes first.
Secondly, Uganda faces lack of political will to implement such conventions. Politicians aim at getting votes and they do not care what this cost. For example, they fear stopping people from encroaching on forests for the fear of loosing votes from them.
In addition political and civil servants changed to put in place programmes called for by these conventions are not committed.
Thirdly corruption is frustrating even the little efforts put in place to combat climate change. The little funds extended to Uganda by developed nations to help put in place programmes called for by the convention end in individual pockets. A few corrupt officials make such programmes fail.
More still, there is also lack of enough awareness about these conventions. Some local masses do not even know anything about these conventions leave alone some of their provisions. This leaves these conventions not put in practical.
A few Environmentalists who know about them do not have enough capacity to make others aware about them.
More still the issue of instability is also a great limitation to applying these conventions. Funds from the budget that would have gone to funding these conventions and their programs go to funding military operations in north where there are rebels of Lords’ Resistance Army.
In addition programmes called for, such as planting of trees can not take place in insecure places in northern Uganda .
There are also not so many specialists in this field in Uganda and even those who are qualified want to stay in urban areas and not going in rural areas to sensitize and educate the rural masses who are the majority.
In addition, the international environmental law itself is not strict enough to punish the offenders severely, so the governments sometimes doesn’t take its provisions seriously. This sometimes leads the government to undermine implementation of these conventions.
Lastly due to high levels of illiteracy in the country, some illiterate masses sometimes fail to implement this convention due to ignorance.
This essay has observed that international environmental law plays several significant roles in controlling climate change. This therefore calls on countries world wide to take active responsibility of implementing what the law call for, in a move intended to control climate change which is seen as a great danger to the future generation.
References.
Birnie, P.W and Boyle, A.E (2002) International law and the environment (2nd ed.) New York: Oxford University Press
Kubasek, N.K and Silverman, G.S (2005) Environmental Law (5th ed.) New jersey Pearson Prentice hall
Steinway, D.M, Drye, K and Warren (2003) Fundamentals of environmental law . In T.F.P Sullivan (ed.) Environmental law handbook (17th ed.) USA: Government institute.
UNCCD (2000) Potential Benefits form becoming a party to the convention(English only) Retrieved April 18, 2006 from http://www.unccd.int/convention/ratif/benefit.php
UNEP and UNFCCC (2002) Climate change Information kit. Geneva Switzerland.
UNFCCC (2003) Caring for climate: A guide to the Climate Change Convention and the Kyoto Protocol. Bonn. Germany
Wikipedia encyclopedia. International environment Law. Retrieved April 18, 2006 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/international_environmental
World Bank (2004) Climate Change: the UNFCCC and the Kyoto protocol. Retrieved April 18, 2006 from http://www.worldbank.org/legal/lengen/lengen-climate.html
[1] Wikipedia Encyclopedia is an online encyclopedia
According to Wikipedia encyclopedia[1], international environmental law can de defined as the, “body of International law that concerns the protection of global environment.”
This draws attention to the fact that international environmental law includes several international laws, which are put together aiming at protection of the environment.
This is in line with Birnie and Boyle (2003: 1) who note that international environmental law is, “a body of law more specifically aimed at protection of the environment.”
It is important to note that as Birnie and Boyle (2003:11) further write international environmental law is not alone in itself but rather it is, “simply a branch of general international law,” which has its foundation as World Bank (2004) notes, “in the 16th and 17th centuries law that was created to govern the diplomatic, commercial, military and other relations of the society of Christian states.”
The international environmental law development can be traced from what World Bank (2002) calls “two main phase,” which range from “1972-1992 which was the period of burgeoning international environmental consciousness surrounding and following the UN Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm in 1972, and from 1992, onwards,” through these years, several conventions and treaties have been signed by nations in a move intended to protest environment.
World Bank (2004) note that the development of international environmental law which it defines as “the body of the international law relevant to environmental issues,” comes as a result of, “globalization of environmental problems, and concerns, attributed to two crucially interrelated factors, ecological and economic interdependence.”
In other words , as the world becomes one global village, people or rather inhabitants are seeing environment as one common resource they share hence a need to protect it jointly.
As Steinway et al (2003) note such laws and requirements address issues ranging from natural environment, including air, water and land and further more how humans interact with these resources and ecological system.
International environmental law has several functions it plays as it endeavors to protect environment. It is important to note that as Birnie and Boyle ( 2002:7) note, the functions of, “international laws in protecting the environment is not fundamentally different from or any less varied than, domestic environmental law.” In other words the two branches of law seem to be playing similar roles since they all aim at protection of environment.
Among other functions, international environmental law, as Birnie and Boyle (2002:7) write, “facilitates and promotes cooperation between states, international organizations and non governmental organizations and constitutes the processes of international environmental governance.” This draws attention to the fact that international environmental law brings together countries which are signatories to such laws. They see themselves as members of one family and in the end this promotes cooperation.
It is important to note that as its first aim, international environmental law, has a function to protect misuse, over exploitation, degradation and destruction of environment. This is in turn helps to conserve the environment which is necessary for any sustainable development.
International environmental law further plays a function of regulating environmental problems. Ibid (2002:7) note that, “like national environmental law, much of international environmental law is concerned with regulating environmental problems, settling common international standards and objectives for prevention or mitigation of harm and providing a flexible rule making process.”
As Birnier and Boyle (2002:7) write, international environmental law, as any other international law, “provides mechanism and procedures for negotiating the necessary rules and standards, settling disputes, and supervising implementation, and compliance with treaties and customary rules.” In other words, it helps to set standards on which environmental conservation is founded. With it therefore, states challenge actions of other states in regard to environment abuse by referring to it.
States also defend their actions or policies by referring to it. In this, international environmental law therefore plays a role of settling disputes.
It helps in compensating those who suffer damage. By the virtue of the fact that international environmental law makes nations answerable for their international environmental crimes, those whose environment suffer damage caused by individuals or government in other countries can use the international environmental law to seek for redress and in the end could get compensated.
More still, as Birnie and Boyle (2002:8) state, international environmental law, helps to “harmonize national laws, either globally or regionally.” This draws attention to the fact that international environmental law leads a situation where by countries that subscribe to it have somehow similar laws towards protection of environment. This is as a result of nations replicating the provisions in the international environmental law.
Lastly the international environmental law also plays a function of monitoring and reporting on environment by nations, Birnie and Boyle (2002:205) note that, “most treaties require states to make periodic reports on matters affecting the treaty.” By doing this, governments monitor their environment and report what is happening to it accordingly.
There are several sources of international environmental however as Wikipedia encyclopedia notes, “there have been many legally binding international agreements concerning the protection of the environment but in this area of international law, soft law is more common than normal.” World Bank (2004) defines soft law as comprising of “non binding instruments that lay down guidelines for future action, or through which states commit themselves politically to meeting certain objectives.” In other words soft law bases on international diplomacy and customs and what is considered morally acceptable by the majority.
Birnie and Boyle (2002:10) give a summary of the source of international environmental law that, “much of international environmental law is the product of an essentially legislative process involving the interplay of international organizations , conferences, diplomacy, codification and progressive development and international courts and relatively subtle interplay of treaties , non binding declarations or resolutions and customary international law.”
According to article 38(1) of the statute of the international court of justice, sources of international law include international convections (treaties) general principles of law recognized in civilized nations, customary international law, judicial decisions and the teachings of the most highly qualified publicists.
International conventions (treaties) come in to existence after international negotiations over matters of common concern. This results in agreement in form of text that usually reflects mutual advantages. The text is agreed upon and signed and after the wanted number of signatories reaches, the convention comes into force.
General principles of law recognized in civilized nations, include norms available and acceptable to the states to regulate their international relations.
International customary law is according to the statute of the international court of justice the, “general practice accepted as law” by nations. World Bank (2004) notes that, “it is something that states do because they regard themselves as legally obliged to do it.”
This draws attention to the fact that international customary law is established by the consistent compliancy by state over time.
Judicial decisions, as a source of international law originate from decisions made by international court of justice and other tribunals.
The writings and teachings of the most highly qualified publicist would include writings of professors and UN reports .
However Birnie and Boyle (2002;12 ) suggest other candidates for international environmental law to include “ General Assembly resolutions , declarations of principles adopted by the UN or by adhoc UN and other conferences, treaty provisions agreed by general consensus among the majority of state but not yet in force, and the proposals of the international law commission.”
There are 3 major conventions which are important in controlling climate change. These include United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Kyoto Protocol and United Nations Convention on Controlling Desertification. The provisions of these 3 conventions have helped much worldwide to combat activities that would have increased climate change.
Climate change Wikipedia encyclopedia refers to the “variation in the Earth's global climate or regional climates over time. It describes changes in the variability or average state of the atmosphere - or average weather - over time scales ranging from decades to millions of years.” Such changes sometimes are dangerous and cause disasters such El Nino and desertification while others are seen as helpful.
Below I discuss these 3 convections and some of their provisions that are playing important roles in controlling climate change.
According to UNFCCC (2003), evidence of human interference with climate first came up in 1979 at the World Climate Conference and as years went by countries developed much concern over environmental issues. In 1988 the United Nations General Assembly adopted resolution 43/53, which was proposed by the government of Malta calling for protection of global climate for present and future generations.
In the same year the United Nations Environment Program and World Meteorological Organization formed a new body called the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change which was aimed at studying scientifically the threat of climate change. In 1990, the first report of this panel confirmed the threat of climate change as being real.
The second World Climate Conference in Geneva in 1990 called for creation of a global treaty to combat climate change and the General Assembly passed resolution 45/212 launching negotiations on a convention on climate change to be concluded by an
Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee (INC).
The representatives of INC adopted the United Nations Framework Convection on Climate Change on 9th May 1992 and was opened for signature at the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro. It later entered into force on 21st March 1994.
UNEP and UNFCCC (2002:18) identify the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change as, “the foundation of global efforts to combat global warning.”
The ultimate objective of the convention is to stabilize greenhouse gas concentration in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous human induced interference with the climate system.
The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change plays several roles in the countries that have ratified, accepted approved or acceded to it.
The first and foremost in that UNFCCC provides for sustainability managing of carbon sink. it helps in bringing into existence forests and other ecosystems that help in absorbing green house gases from the atmosphere hence reducing it. Green house gases damage ozone layer which is responsible for regulating the amount of sunshine reaching the earth. A damaged ozone layer would let a lot of heat from sun reach earth hence causing increased heat on the earth which leads to global warming and subsequently climate change. However with carbon sink in place as UNFCCC calls for, such a situation might not happen since green house gases would in the atmosphere would be remove by forests and other ecosystems.
Secondly, UNFCCC provides for developing and transferring of environmentally friendly technologies especially from developed to low developed countries. This helps the low developed counties to increase their capacity to fight causes of climate change.
Such technology includes the appropriate technology that does not emit a lot of green house gases .
Thirdly, UNFCCC helps member countries to prepare to adapt to climate change. In other words it alerts them early enough and by the time climate change, happens, it doesn’t affect them as much as it would have been, if they no alerts were made. Examples here include the times when heavy rains or drought are going to happen and people are warned before such as to plant crops early enough.
It further promotes education, training and public awareness concerning climate change. This helps local people in the member countries to know the dangers of climate change, and what they should do to control it and subsequently if they out what they have been told into practice, climate change is fought or minimized.
More still, UNFCCC obliges its member countries to engage in climate research, observations of the global climate system and information exchange. This is turn helps member countries to keep informed about development s in climate change
Researchers in climate change in particular make them knowledgeable and armed with more facts of what causes and results of climate change and other related eventualities . With such knowledge, it is easy to plan for control measures of climate change.
Lastly NFCCC helps member countries to put in place mitigation measures to climate change. It is important to note that before severe climate change is to happen , such countries are in the know and when even it happens , countries affected are helped in over coming it say with aid inform of funds and other resources.
Kyoto protocol is also one of the convection aimed at controlling climate change. Kyoto protocol is what UNFCCC (2003:4) calls, “a substantial extension to the NFCCC that outlined legally binding commitments.” It was adopted in Kyoto Japan in December 1997.
It focuses on largely binding green house gases emission targets for countries especially for the developed countries . This is aimed at arresting and reversing the upward trend in green house gas emission.
In addition to the above role of controlling the emission of green house gases by mostly the developed countries, Kyoto protocol also plays several other roles in controlling climate change.
It promotes environmentally friendly technology transfer especially from developed nations to those still developing. Such technology helps the developing nations to effectively with much ease control climate change. These technologies also help the developing countries not to follow the same suit of developed countries which is now seen as not being environmentally friendly.
Secondly, Kyoto protocol promotes cooperation in science research and international climate observation networks, this helps in member countries to get information and mostly relevant information on climate change and what is happening to climate. This in turn equips nations, with information to use in controlling climate change.
Thirdly, Kyoto protocol provides for supporting education , training , public awareness and capacity building initiatives . All these help to equip the masses in member countries with skills necessary for controlling climate change.
It also helps nations to establish and put in practice, national mitigation and adaptation programmes all aimed at controlling climate change. Such programmes help the masses in member countries to do all they can to control climate change and also to find ways of how they can deal with the condition s brought about by climate change.
The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) is another convection aimed at controlling climate change through combating desertification. It was adopted in June 1994 and opened to signature from October 1994 to October 1995, it came into force on 26th of December 1996.
UNCCD plays several roles in combating climate change.
Firstly, it provides the country parties affected by desertification in Africa. Asia,
Latin America, Caribbean and Northern Mediterranean to prepare programs and put them in action all aimed at combating desertification. Such programmes included national strategies of planting trees.
The same countries are obliged to cooperate at the regional and sub regional levels in combating desertification. This in turn helps them to share information and skills on combating desertification through cooperation especially in collection, analysis and exchange of information concerning desertification. This also promotes an integrated approach in fighting desertification
Secondly , through the convention, developed country parties support affected countries by providing financial resources and facilitating access to appropriate technology .knowledge and know how. Financial support from developed countries help the affected countries to establish mitigation, measures to desertification.
Like wise, appropriate technology and knowledge helps the affected countries to effectively combat desertification. It is important to note that this convention helps Low Developed countries to improve access to relevant technologies and data.
The convention also provides for capacity building and awareness building, which equips the masses in member countries with information necessary for combating desertification. Local masses are made aware about desertification and its dangers.
However there are several limitations which hinder nations and in this particular case, Uganda in applying these 3 international conventions and others in general.
Some of these limitations include lack of enough funds to implement all programs called for by these conventions such as those aiming at reducing transport sector emissions and enhancing energy efficiency. This is because Uganda is a poor country. Is sometimes sees such programs as not being a priority but rather fighting poverty comes first.
Secondly, Uganda faces lack of political will to implement such conventions. Politicians aim at getting votes and they do not care what this cost. For example, they fear stopping people from encroaching on forests for the fear of loosing votes from them.
In addition political and civil servants changed to put in place programmes called for by these conventions are not committed.
Thirdly corruption is frustrating even the little efforts put in place to combat climate change. The little funds extended to Uganda by developed nations to help put in place programmes called for by the convention end in individual pockets. A few corrupt officials make such programmes fail.
More still, there is also lack of enough awareness about these conventions. Some local masses do not even know anything about these conventions leave alone some of their provisions. This leaves these conventions not put in practical.
A few Environmentalists who know about them do not have enough capacity to make others aware about them.
More still the issue of instability is also a great limitation to applying these conventions. Funds from the budget that would have gone to funding these conventions and their programs go to funding military operations in north where there are rebels of Lords’ Resistance Army.
In addition programmes called for, such as planting of trees can not take place in insecure places in northern Uganda .
There are also not so many specialists in this field in Uganda and even those who are qualified want to stay in urban areas and not going in rural areas to sensitize and educate the rural masses who are the majority.
In addition, the international environmental law itself is not strict enough to punish the offenders severely, so the governments sometimes doesn’t take its provisions seriously. This sometimes leads the government to undermine implementation of these conventions.
Lastly due to high levels of illiteracy in the country, some illiterate masses sometimes fail to implement this convention due to ignorance.
This essay has observed that international environmental law plays several significant roles in controlling climate change. This therefore calls on countries world wide to take active responsibility of implementing what the law call for, in a move intended to control climate change which is seen as a great danger to the future generation.
References.
Birnie, P.W and Boyle, A.E (2002) International law and the environment (2nd ed.) New York: Oxford University Press
Kubasek, N.K and Silverman, G.S (2005) Environmental Law (5th ed.) New jersey Pearson Prentice hall
Steinway, D.M, Drye, K and Warren (2003) Fundamentals of environmental law . In T.F.P Sullivan (ed.) Environmental law handbook (17th ed.) USA: Government institute.
UNCCD (2000) Potential Benefits form becoming a party to the convention(English only) Retrieved April 18, 2006 from http://www.unccd.int/convention/ratif/benefit.php
UNEP and UNFCCC (2002) Climate change Information kit. Geneva Switzerland.
UNFCCC (2003) Caring for climate: A guide to the Climate Change Convention and the Kyoto Protocol. Bonn. Germany
Wikipedia encyclopedia. International environment Law. Retrieved April 18, 2006 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/international_environmental
World Bank (2004) Climate Change: the UNFCCC and the Kyoto protocol. Retrieved April 18, 2006 from http://www.worldbank.org/legal/lengen/lengen-climate.html
[1] Wikipedia Encyclopedia is an online encyclopedia
Tuesday, June 20, 2006
ENVIRONMENTAL ECONOMICS
Evaluation of the viability of any 3 sources of energy given in the Uganda’s energy policy.
By MUGIRA FREDRICK
It is evident that the fortunes of the world's human population, for better or for worse, are inextricably interrelated with the use that is made of energy resources.
-M. King Hubbert, Resources and Man, 1969
Energy policy is a plan of action for undertaking issues related to energy supply, demand, development of energy related industry and trade and consequences of energy activities (Merriam Webster Dictionary, Wikipedia Encyclopaedia ). This draws attention to the fact that energy policy looks at various sources of energy in a given country and how they can be effectively utilized in a sustainable and environmentally friendly way to benefit the peoples’ demand for energy.
This essay concentrates on the energy policy for Uganda and further evaluates the viability of 3 energy sources. The energy sources are Hydroelectric, Solar and biomass energy .
The Energy policy for Uganda was formulated in September 2003 with its goal focussing on meeting energy needs of Ugandans for social and economic development in an environmentally sustainable manner (The Energy Policy for Uganda, 2002).
“In formulation of this policy, we have considered the main characteristics of the energy sector in Uganda and its linkages with the rest of the economy and the international scene” ( Syda N. M Bbumba ).
In its offset, the energy policy for Uganda urges the case in favour of an energy policy for the country. It goes ahead to explore the energy sector in Uganda and its composition. It reveals the energy sector in Uganda as comprising of sub sectors of power, petroleum, new and renewable sources of energy and atomic energy.
The policy further dwells on energy consumption and gives the major sectors for energy consumption in the country as transport, industry and commerce, household and institutions and Agriculture.
Part 2 of the policy concentrates on what is called, “key Issues in the energy sector”. These include issues that affect the supply and demand of energy in the country. The policy goes ahead to tackle energy conservation in the country, the gaol and objectives of the policy and regulation principles for the sector.
Part 4 of the policy concentrates on the demand and supply strategies with in the energy sector while part 5 looks at the short and medium term policy priority actions including investments in the sector between 2000 to 2012 .
The Energy Policy for Uganda shows the sources and potential sources of energy in the country as being six in number. These include hydroelectric power which is generated from dams such as those along river Nile and in Kilembe mines in Kasese district.
The other sources of energy include petroleum products all of which are currently imported into the country. Petroleum exploration is also currently going on at Lake Albert which could help in production of petroleum products.
Biomass energy which includes mostly firewood, charcoal and crop residues is also talked about in the policy and is shown as constituting 90 percent of the total energy consumption in the country
Solar is also another source of energy shown in the Policy, others include wind, geothermal energy and atomic energy.
From the above 6 sources and potential sources of energy in Uganda, I feel the three sources I give below are the most viable.
HYDROELECTRIC POWER
This is the power generated from dams. In Uganda, such dams are along river Nile, while another is situated in Kasese district. Dams along river Nile generate 300 megawatts while the other dam in Kasese Cobalt Mines produces 17 megawatts to make a total of 317 megawatts as hydroelectric power generated in Uganda (The Energy Policy for Uganda, 2002, African Economic Outlook 2003/2004).
Hydroelectric Power is viable in Uganda because it is inexhaustible or rather renewable. As long as there is water in rivers and lakes, which is provided freely by nature through the hitting of the seas and other water bodies by the sun which causes evaporation resulting into rains, this energy can be generated and keep on being supplied to the masses. In times of the decrease in water levels in the rivers and lakes, the generation of power may decrease but it is guaranteed of continuity. Certainly if rains increase, the generation of power can go back to the normal rate
Secondly, there are no wastes produced during the generation of this power. If they were there , such wastes could pollute the environment, a thing that leads to several problems including those which affect peoples’ health causing them to spend a lot of money in solving such problems. Unlike in fossil fuels where for example coal is burnt to produce electricity, in hydroelectric power, water just runs the turbines which in the end produce electricity to be supplied to people with no residues such as dangerous gases like carbon dioxide which causes global warming among other problems. Wastes that could destroy environment are also not there.
Thirdly, hydroelectric power stations produce high amounts of power unlike other sources such as geothermal. Uganda's hydroelectric power potential is estimated at 2000 megawatts (The Energy Policy for Uganda, 2002).This subsequently makes it viable to benefit a lot of people even though they may be situated miles and miles from the dams. With the ever growing population of Uganda, such a source of power which supplies electricity in big amounts would be the one to rely on.
Fourthly, it is cheap on the side of customers or users. Once this power has been installed in your house or factory, you just keep paying bills at the end of the month. There is no need to buy or recharge the batteries. Likewise, once the dam is built, the energy is virtually free. Water keeps on running the turbines which produce the electricity. There is no need of fuel as it is done in the fossil fuel productions to run the turbines.
More still, dams can serve other uses apart from generation of electricity. Such purposes would include control of river flooding since water that would have been flooding is collected towards the dam to run the turbines. Another purpose is provision of water for irrigation. Water gathered at the dam can always be used for the purposes of irrigation in areas near the dam. Such dams can also work as tourist attractions hence bring into the country foreign exchange.
Unlike for example in solar type of power which can not be produced at night and times when there is no sunshine, hydroelectric power generation is constant. It can be produced anytime of the day as long as water is running. This makes it reliable and ideal for industries and hospitals which need power all day round.
When it comes to employment, hydroelectric power gives thousands of people jobs. The engineers, the sales executives, the administrators and those that read meters, all benefit from this source of energy through getting jobs. At least 1351 people were employed in the hydroelectric sector in Uganda during 2001 (www.afrepren.org/datahandbook2/pdfs/elec.pdf). This makes it ideal in helping people employed in this sector to earn a living and fight poverty.
On the other hand, generation of hydroelectric power is expensive especially in construction of a dam. This has partly been the reason why Uganda which is endowed with several sites on rivers where it can construct dams has not done so. An example here is Karuma falls on River Nile and Kikagate falls on river Kagera which are capable of producing electricity but the government has no enough funds to construct dams there. It is costly for the government to construct dams and that is why Uganda has been turning to donors to help it in construction of Bujagali dam on river Nile which has also taken long to take off.
Secondly, construction of a dam in a particular area disrupts surrounding ecosystems. Building of a dam in an area may cause flooding in that particular area which destroys or affects plants and animals that live in that particular area. This similar affects aquatic life in those rivers because the normal flow of water is altered and this may be harmfully.
More still, construction of a dam in a particular area may lead to relocation of people that were living there, interference with their culture and traditions like it is happening with the Basoga people who say construction of Bujagali dam will interfere with their gods at the falls. When people are relocated, the government spends a lot of money in this exercise because it involves compensation. All this makes this a risky and expensive venture to undertake.
Dams affect the quality of water in a lake or river where they are situated. An example is Kiira Dam on River Nile which has been criticized for decreasing the levels of water of Lake Victoria. Dams cause an increase in the flow of water from a lake, which means that more water would be lost from the lake and if there are no enough rains to replace this water being lost, there could be a problem of lack of enough water in a river to run the turbines which subsequently leads to production of little power.
Monthly payments of electricity bills make this power source expensive for an ordinary citizen who has no enough earnings. No wonder this particular source of power has been concentrated in urban areas where at least there are rich people who can afford to pay for it. In the rural areas: it is not there, people there can not afford to pay monthly bills.
Lastly, hydroelectric power relies on water for its production, so in situations of droughts which lead to decrease in water levels, turbines may fail to run. This means that little or no electricity would be produced. Such a scenario is currently happening in Uganda and the rest of East African countries where by the current dry conditions in the area have led to a decrease in water levels of lake Victoria and several other lakes in the regions which are the main suppliers of water to rivers on which dams supplying electricity in the three countries are situated. This has led to loadshedding every after a day. This is dangerous to business communities which use power for their transactions.
All in all, there is nothing that has advantages without disadvantages. Though hydroelectric power has some disadvantages, I feel it remains viable for the country because the alternatives are worse.
SOLAR ENERGY
This is the energy generated from the Sun. Uganda, which is situated along the equator has a solar radiation of about 4-5 KWH/m2/day which favors solar technology application (The Energy Policy for Uganda, 2002, African Economic Outlook 2003/2004). This makes this power source viable.
Solar energy is viable for Ugandans because of several reasons which include among others the availability of financial incentives in form of loans from the central government through village banks to reduce on the costs of accessing this energy in homes. Government currently passes loans through microfinance institutions and the money is meant to help local people to buy solar equipment for their homes, shops and other businesses (The Energy Policy for Uganda, 2002). This means that, with support form the central government, this source of energy can easily be accessed by the local people without having to pay much which in real sense they do not have.
Secondly solar energy is renewable. It can not be overexploited and get exhausted. The sun keeps on shinning which is just enough to be tapped and to generate power.
Thirdly, solar energy can be used in remote areas where hydroelectric power and other sources of energy such as geothermal can not be used (The Energy Policy for Uganda, 2002:21). Such places are in for example the mountainous areas, remote areas, like those close to the Uganda-Sudan boarder. This means that people who live in such areas would not be left out of the plans to access power for economic development.
Solar energy source needs no fuel to keep it running like in the case of the energy produced from fossils which need to be burnt to produce electricity. With solar you just buy solar panels and connect them to start getting power. There is no need of buying fuel to produce power like in the case of a generator. This also makes this energy source viable in that it does not pollute air as a result of burning fuel.
More still, solar power is generated where it is needed. This means that there would be no costs needed to extend this power from say a dam as in the case of hydroelectric power to homesteads or industries. It operates independently and a homestead is the sole unit that utilizes it with no strings attached. This makes its management easy. In addition to this, there are no monthly bills to be paid. One just installs it and that is the end. This makes it cheaper.
Furthermore, since solar energy can be installed in anyplace, irrespective of terrain, remoteness and accessibility, this makes it ideal for supporting rural development and wealth creation there. Unlike hydroelectric power, solar energy does not concentrate in urban areas and along the roads. This means that if installed in rural areas, solar energy can support projects there intended to generate income for the local people as hydroelectric power is doing in urban centres. This subsequently fuels rural economics.
By the virtue of the fact that solar energy does not cause pollution including emission of dangerous gases, it does cause global warming. This makes it ideal in such that it is environmentally friendly and causes little or no harm to the surrounding environment and the environment beyond.
In case of the need for more power, one can just add solar panels and increase the production of energy. This is contrary to other sources such as hydroelectric power where there is need to construct another dam if more power is to be generated. This is currently happening in Uganda where by the demand for hydroelectric power in the country is high and the only need to satisfy it , has been seen as constructing new dams on River Nile such as Bujagali but not expanding the current dams on this river. This therefore, justifies the reason why solar energy is viable for Uganda in that, it is not costly to expand it.
Solar panels operate silently. They have no moving parts like in the case of a dam or wind farm. This makes solar environmentally friendly with no noise pollution which could cause health problems to people.
It is ideal for running satellites such as those of Television, Telephone and weather forecast plus internet because it can be installed onto satellite dishes that are in the air rotating around the globe. With increased globalisation, Uganda needs to invest much in communication technology so as to cope up with the rest of other nations. This means that without solar power, Uganda would be doing badly in this field of communication and subsequently it would lag behind in development.
On the other hand, solar energy needs sunlight to operate and in cases where there is little or no sunshine say at night, this would make it unreliable.
It is also expensive to install solar. One needs over a million to buy solar equipment and pay for installations. This is surely expensive for an average rural person in Uganda.
It is also not produced in large amounts. In fact people in rural areas resort to using it for lighting and playing radios and cassettes because it is not in high amounts like hydroelectric power. Several solar panels are needed to generate a decent amount of power. This is expensive for the people and the government also.
Lastly, it may be dangerous for the human health if installed improperly. If the sun rays which solar panels attract accidentally leak to humans, this may cause several diseases including skin cancer, a thing that is deadly leave alone being costly in searching for the cure which is not there.
All in all, though it has some disadvantages, its advantages outweigh its disadvantages which make it ideal for use especially in rural areas where masses have no access to alternative sources of power.
BIOMASS ENERGY
Biomass energy in Uganda includes energy produces from "firewood, charcoal, and crop residues".(The Energy Policy for Uganda, 2002, African Economic Outlook 2003/2004). The other energy produced under biomass energy which is not common in Uganda is that from sugar canes, municipal wastes, livestock and human wastes among others. The common energy in Uganda under biomass comes from firewood, charcoal, and crop residues which,“constitute over 90 percent of total energy consumption in the country . It provides almost all the energy used to meet basic needs of cooking and water heating in rural and most urban households, institutions and commercial buildings"(The Energy Policy for Uganda, 2002, 2002:19).
Biomass energy is viable for Uganda because it is cheap. Fire woods and crop residues, these are provided freely by nature. People in rural areas just go to forests or gardens and collect firewood with no fee paid. Likewise charcoal is cheap. A charcoal sack in most towns in Uganda now goes for about 10.000 shillings. Such a sack of charcoal can last for about a week in an average family of 4 members.
Secondly, this source of energy is renewable. Trees, scrubs among others keep on growing naturally while others are planted by man. This makes them inexhaustible and hence accessible all year round. Likewise for the human and livestock wastes, these would ever be there as along as human beings live and in most cases they are for free.
Trading in biomass energy is ideal in providing employment to rural uneducated people. Charcoal trade in Uganda, “employs 20000 people and generates Ushs 36 billion per year in rural incomes" (The Energy Policy for Uganda, 2002:20). This makes biomass viable for it does not only provide energy but also employment for especially rural masses.
More still, in case of energy from human and livestock wastes plus municipal wastes and sugar cane leftovers (bagasse), this helps to recycle and put to use materials that would have been wasted. In other words Biomass source of energy helps to use resources that would have been a nuisance to the community.
On the other hand , this particular source of energy is dangerous to the environment. It has led to tremendous cutting of trees to make charcoal and firewood. This is leading to deforestation. Subsequently deforestation is leading to several other problems such as global warming, drought, unpredictable weather patterns and reduction of water levels in lakes and rivers such as Lake Victoria and River Nile.
In addition , this biomass source of energy leads to production of harmful gases such as carbon dioxide which leads to destruction of ozone layer, a thing that causes a lot of sun rays to penetrate through the ozone layer and reach the earth. This subsequently leads to global warming.
More still, it is hard to collect enough and sufficient quantities of wastes say the livestock wastes to produce power. This makes this particular source of energy unreliable because at one time if such wastes are in scarcity, the power also would be in scarcity.
In addition, the process of producing power in this particular energy source, especially that from sugar canes and human and livestock wastes is costly. The process of burning solid wastes to provide heat used to make steam for running the turbines before power is generated surely is a long and costly process for government leave alone a local person. No wonder, government has been having plans to invest in this energy, but it has taken long to have it developed.
In conclusion, by the virtue of the fact that the 3 sources of energy given above are the ones used common in the country, it makes them viable. If they had not been viable, other means would have been more prominent than them.
NOTE
A better version of this text with graphics and proper references can be got free of charge from the author send email to- mugifred@yahoo.com
REFERENCES:
African Economic Outlook. (2003/2004), African Development Bank.
The Energy Policy for Uganda. (2002), Ministry of Energy and Mineral Development, Kampala.
Useful Websites.
htt://eereweb.eedoe.gov.
http://home.clara.net
http://library.thinkquest.org
http://www.stthomas.edu/recycle/energy.htm
www.afrepren.org/datahandbook2/pdfs/elec.pdf
www.energyandminerals.go.ug/energypolicy.pdf
www.wikipedia.org
Evaluation of the viability of any 3 sources of energy given in the Uganda’s energy policy.
By MUGIRA FREDRICK
It is evident that the fortunes of the world's human population, for better or for worse, are inextricably interrelated with the use that is made of energy resources.
-M. King Hubbert, Resources and Man, 1969
Energy policy is a plan of action for undertaking issues related to energy supply, demand, development of energy related industry and trade and consequences of energy activities (Merriam Webster Dictionary, Wikipedia Encyclopaedia ). This draws attention to the fact that energy policy looks at various sources of energy in a given country and how they can be effectively utilized in a sustainable and environmentally friendly way to benefit the peoples’ demand for energy.
This essay concentrates on the energy policy for Uganda and further evaluates the viability of 3 energy sources. The energy sources are Hydroelectric, Solar and biomass energy .
The Energy policy for Uganda was formulated in September 2003 with its goal focussing on meeting energy needs of Ugandans for social and economic development in an environmentally sustainable manner (The Energy Policy for Uganda, 2002).
“In formulation of this policy, we have considered the main characteristics of the energy sector in Uganda and its linkages with the rest of the economy and the international scene” ( Syda N. M Bbumba ).
In its offset, the energy policy for Uganda urges the case in favour of an energy policy for the country. It goes ahead to explore the energy sector in Uganda and its composition. It reveals the energy sector in Uganda as comprising of sub sectors of power, petroleum, new and renewable sources of energy and atomic energy.
The policy further dwells on energy consumption and gives the major sectors for energy consumption in the country as transport, industry and commerce, household and institutions and Agriculture.
Part 2 of the policy concentrates on what is called, “key Issues in the energy sector”. These include issues that affect the supply and demand of energy in the country. The policy goes ahead to tackle energy conservation in the country, the gaol and objectives of the policy and regulation principles for the sector.
Part 4 of the policy concentrates on the demand and supply strategies with in the energy sector while part 5 looks at the short and medium term policy priority actions including investments in the sector between 2000 to 2012 .
The Energy Policy for Uganda shows the sources and potential sources of energy in the country as being six in number. These include hydroelectric power which is generated from dams such as those along river Nile and in Kilembe mines in Kasese district.
The other sources of energy include petroleum products all of which are currently imported into the country. Petroleum exploration is also currently going on at Lake Albert which could help in production of petroleum products.
Biomass energy which includes mostly firewood, charcoal and crop residues is also talked about in the policy and is shown as constituting 90 percent of the total energy consumption in the country
Solar is also another source of energy shown in the Policy, others include wind, geothermal energy and atomic energy.
From the above 6 sources and potential sources of energy in Uganda, I feel the three sources I give below are the most viable.
HYDROELECTRIC POWER
This is the power generated from dams. In Uganda, such dams are along river Nile, while another is situated in Kasese district. Dams along river Nile generate 300 megawatts while the other dam in Kasese Cobalt Mines produces 17 megawatts to make a total of 317 megawatts as hydroelectric power generated in Uganda (The Energy Policy for Uganda, 2002, African Economic Outlook 2003/2004).
Hydroelectric Power is viable in Uganda because it is inexhaustible or rather renewable. As long as there is water in rivers and lakes, which is provided freely by nature through the hitting of the seas and other water bodies by the sun which causes evaporation resulting into rains, this energy can be generated and keep on being supplied to the masses. In times of the decrease in water levels in the rivers and lakes, the generation of power may decrease but it is guaranteed of continuity. Certainly if rains increase, the generation of power can go back to the normal rate
Secondly, there are no wastes produced during the generation of this power. If they were there , such wastes could pollute the environment, a thing that leads to several problems including those which affect peoples’ health causing them to spend a lot of money in solving such problems. Unlike in fossil fuels where for example coal is burnt to produce electricity, in hydroelectric power, water just runs the turbines which in the end produce electricity to be supplied to people with no residues such as dangerous gases like carbon dioxide which causes global warming among other problems. Wastes that could destroy environment are also not there.
Thirdly, hydroelectric power stations produce high amounts of power unlike other sources such as geothermal. Uganda's hydroelectric power potential is estimated at 2000 megawatts (The Energy Policy for Uganda, 2002).This subsequently makes it viable to benefit a lot of people even though they may be situated miles and miles from the dams. With the ever growing population of Uganda, such a source of power which supplies electricity in big amounts would be the one to rely on.
Fourthly, it is cheap on the side of customers or users. Once this power has been installed in your house or factory, you just keep paying bills at the end of the month. There is no need to buy or recharge the batteries. Likewise, once the dam is built, the energy is virtually free. Water keeps on running the turbines which produce the electricity. There is no need of fuel as it is done in the fossil fuel productions to run the turbines.
More still, dams can serve other uses apart from generation of electricity. Such purposes would include control of river flooding since water that would have been flooding is collected towards the dam to run the turbines. Another purpose is provision of water for irrigation. Water gathered at the dam can always be used for the purposes of irrigation in areas near the dam. Such dams can also work as tourist attractions hence bring into the country foreign exchange.
Unlike for example in solar type of power which can not be produced at night and times when there is no sunshine, hydroelectric power generation is constant. It can be produced anytime of the day as long as water is running. This makes it reliable and ideal for industries and hospitals which need power all day round.
When it comes to employment, hydroelectric power gives thousands of people jobs. The engineers, the sales executives, the administrators and those that read meters, all benefit from this source of energy through getting jobs. At least 1351 people were employed in the hydroelectric sector in Uganda during 2001 (www.afrepren.org/datahandbook2/pdfs/elec.pdf). This makes it ideal in helping people employed in this sector to earn a living and fight poverty.
On the other hand, generation of hydroelectric power is expensive especially in construction of a dam. This has partly been the reason why Uganda which is endowed with several sites on rivers where it can construct dams has not done so. An example here is Karuma falls on River Nile and Kikagate falls on river Kagera which are capable of producing electricity but the government has no enough funds to construct dams there. It is costly for the government to construct dams and that is why Uganda has been turning to donors to help it in construction of Bujagali dam on river Nile which has also taken long to take off.
Secondly, construction of a dam in a particular area disrupts surrounding ecosystems. Building of a dam in an area may cause flooding in that particular area which destroys or affects plants and animals that live in that particular area. This similar affects aquatic life in those rivers because the normal flow of water is altered and this may be harmfully.
More still, construction of a dam in a particular area may lead to relocation of people that were living there, interference with their culture and traditions like it is happening with the Basoga people who say construction of Bujagali dam will interfere with their gods at the falls. When people are relocated, the government spends a lot of money in this exercise because it involves compensation. All this makes this a risky and expensive venture to undertake.
Dams affect the quality of water in a lake or river where they are situated. An example is Kiira Dam on River Nile which has been criticized for decreasing the levels of water of Lake Victoria. Dams cause an increase in the flow of water from a lake, which means that more water would be lost from the lake and if there are no enough rains to replace this water being lost, there could be a problem of lack of enough water in a river to run the turbines which subsequently leads to production of little power.
Monthly payments of electricity bills make this power source expensive for an ordinary citizen who has no enough earnings. No wonder this particular source of power has been concentrated in urban areas where at least there are rich people who can afford to pay for it. In the rural areas: it is not there, people there can not afford to pay monthly bills.
Lastly, hydroelectric power relies on water for its production, so in situations of droughts which lead to decrease in water levels, turbines may fail to run. This means that little or no electricity would be produced. Such a scenario is currently happening in Uganda and the rest of East African countries where by the current dry conditions in the area have led to a decrease in water levels of lake Victoria and several other lakes in the regions which are the main suppliers of water to rivers on which dams supplying electricity in the three countries are situated. This has led to loadshedding every after a day. This is dangerous to business communities which use power for their transactions.
All in all, there is nothing that has advantages without disadvantages. Though hydroelectric power has some disadvantages, I feel it remains viable for the country because the alternatives are worse.
SOLAR ENERGY
This is the energy generated from the Sun. Uganda, which is situated along the equator has a solar radiation of about 4-5 KWH/m2/day which favors solar technology application (The Energy Policy for Uganda, 2002, African Economic Outlook 2003/2004). This makes this power source viable.
Solar energy is viable for Ugandans because of several reasons which include among others the availability of financial incentives in form of loans from the central government through village banks to reduce on the costs of accessing this energy in homes. Government currently passes loans through microfinance institutions and the money is meant to help local people to buy solar equipment for their homes, shops and other businesses (The Energy Policy for Uganda, 2002). This means that, with support form the central government, this source of energy can easily be accessed by the local people without having to pay much which in real sense they do not have.
Secondly solar energy is renewable. It can not be overexploited and get exhausted. The sun keeps on shinning which is just enough to be tapped and to generate power.
Thirdly, solar energy can be used in remote areas where hydroelectric power and other sources of energy such as geothermal can not be used (The Energy Policy for Uganda, 2002:21). Such places are in for example the mountainous areas, remote areas, like those close to the Uganda-Sudan boarder. This means that people who live in such areas would not be left out of the plans to access power for economic development.
Solar energy source needs no fuel to keep it running like in the case of the energy produced from fossils which need to be burnt to produce electricity. With solar you just buy solar panels and connect them to start getting power. There is no need of buying fuel to produce power like in the case of a generator. This also makes this energy source viable in that it does not pollute air as a result of burning fuel.
More still, solar power is generated where it is needed. This means that there would be no costs needed to extend this power from say a dam as in the case of hydroelectric power to homesteads or industries. It operates independently and a homestead is the sole unit that utilizes it with no strings attached. This makes its management easy. In addition to this, there are no monthly bills to be paid. One just installs it and that is the end. This makes it cheaper.
Furthermore, since solar energy can be installed in anyplace, irrespective of terrain, remoteness and accessibility, this makes it ideal for supporting rural development and wealth creation there. Unlike hydroelectric power, solar energy does not concentrate in urban areas and along the roads. This means that if installed in rural areas, solar energy can support projects there intended to generate income for the local people as hydroelectric power is doing in urban centres. This subsequently fuels rural economics.
By the virtue of the fact that solar energy does not cause pollution including emission of dangerous gases, it does cause global warming. This makes it ideal in such that it is environmentally friendly and causes little or no harm to the surrounding environment and the environment beyond.
In case of the need for more power, one can just add solar panels and increase the production of energy. This is contrary to other sources such as hydroelectric power where there is need to construct another dam if more power is to be generated. This is currently happening in Uganda where by the demand for hydroelectric power in the country is high and the only need to satisfy it , has been seen as constructing new dams on River Nile such as Bujagali but not expanding the current dams on this river. This therefore, justifies the reason why solar energy is viable for Uganda in that, it is not costly to expand it.
Solar panels operate silently. They have no moving parts like in the case of a dam or wind farm. This makes solar environmentally friendly with no noise pollution which could cause health problems to people.
It is ideal for running satellites such as those of Television, Telephone and weather forecast plus internet because it can be installed onto satellite dishes that are in the air rotating around the globe. With increased globalisation, Uganda needs to invest much in communication technology so as to cope up with the rest of other nations. This means that without solar power, Uganda would be doing badly in this field of communication and subsequently it would lag behind in development.
On the other hand, solar energy needs sunlight to operate and in cases where there is little or no sunshine say at night, this would make it unreliable.
It is also expensive to install solar. One needs over a million to buy solar equipment and pay for installations. This is surely expensive for an average rural person in Uganda.
It is also not produced in large amounts. In fact people in rural areas resort to using it for lighting and playing radios and cassettes because it is not in high amounts like hydroelectric power. Several solar panels are needed to generate a decent amount of power. This is expensive for the people and the government also.
Lastly, it may be dangerous for the human health if installed improperly. If the sun rays which solar panels attract accidentally leak to humans, this may cause several diseases including skin cancer, a thing that is deadly leave alone being costly in searching for the cure which is not there.
All in all, though it has some disadvantages, its advantages outweigh its disadvantages which make it ideal for use especially in rural areas where masses have no access to alternative sources of power.
BIOMASS ENERGY
Biomass energy in Uganda includes energy produces from "firewood, charcoal, and crop residues".(The Energy Policy for Uganda, 2002, African Economic Outlook 2003/2004). The other energy produced under biomass energy which is not common in Uganda is that from sugar canes, municipal wastes, livestock and human wastes among others. The common energy in Uganda under biomass comes from firewood, charcoal, and crop residues which,“constitute over 90 percent of total energy consumption in the country . It provides almost all the energy used to meet basic needs of cooking and water heating in rural and most urban households, institutions and commercial buildings"(The Energy Policy for Uganda, 2002, 2002:19).
Biomass energy is viable for Uganda because it is cheap. Fire woods and crop residues, these are provided freely by nature. People in rural areas just go to forests or gardens and collect firewood with no fee paid. Likewise charcoal is cheap. A charcoal sack in most towns in Uganda now goes for about 10.000 shillings. Such a sack of charcoal can last for about a week in an average family of 4 members.
Secondly, this source of energy is renewable. Trees, scrubs among others keep on growing naturally while others are planted by man. This makes them inexhaustible and hence accessible all year round. Likewise for the human and livestock wastes, these would ever be there as along as human beings live and in most cases they are for free.
Trading in biomass energy is ideal in providing employment to rural uneducated people. Charcoal trade in Uganda, “employs 20000 people and generates Ushs 36 billion per year in rural incomes" (The Energy Policy for Uganda, 2002:20). This makes biomass viable for it does not only provide energy but also employment for especially rural masses.
More still, in case of energy from human and livestock wastes plus municipal wastes and sugar cane leftovers (bagasse), this helps to recycle and put to use materials that would have been wasted. In other words Biomass source of energy helps to use resources that would have been a nuisance to the community.
On the other hand , this particular source of energy is dangerous to the environment. It has led to tremendous cutting of trees to make charcoal and firewood. This is leading to deforestation. Subsequently deforestation is leading to several other problems such as global warming, drought, unpredictable weather patterns and reduction of water levels in lakes and rivers such as Lake Victoria and River Nile.
In addition , this biomass source of energy leads to production of harmful gases such as carbon dioxide which leads to destruction of ozone layer, a thing that causes a lot of sun rays to penetrate through the ozone layer and reach the earth. This subsequently leads to global warming.
More still, it is hard to collect enough and sufficient quantities of wastes say the livestock wastes to produce power. This makes this particular source of energy unreliable because at one time if such wastes are in scarcity, the power also would be in scarcity.
In addition, the process of producing power in this particular energy source, especially that from sugar canes and human and livestock wastes is costly. The process of burning solid wastes to provide heat used to make steam for running the turbines before power is generated surely is a long and costly process for government leave alone a local person. No wonder, government has been having plans to invest in this energy, but it has taken long to have it developed.
In conclusion, by the virtue of the fact that the 3 sources of energy given above are the ones used common in the country, it makes them viable. If they had not been viable, other means would have been more prominent than them.
NOTE
A better version of this text with graphics and proper references can be got free of charge from the author send email to- mugifred@yahoo.com
REFERENCES:
African Economic Outlook. (2003/2004), African Development Bank.
The Energy Policy for Uganda. (2002), Ministry of Energy and Mineral Development, Kampala.
Useful Websites.
htt://eereweb.eedoe.gov.
http://home.clara.net
http://library.thinkquest.org
http://www.stthomas.edu/recycle/energy.htm
www.afrepren.org/datahandbook2/pdfs/elec.pdf
www.energyandminerals.go.ug/energypolicy.pdf
www.wikipedia.org
Thursday, April 06, 2006
FLIGHT H5N1: NEXT STOPOVER EASTERN AFRICA?
Mugira Fredrick
The flight started in Southeast Asia in 2003. It has since then had several stopovers.From Asia to Europe and more recently in Africa’s Nigeria, Niger, Cameroon and Egypt. Aboard the flight piloted by birds is none other than the lethal H5N1 strain of bird flu.
Its next stopover? No one knows. Most likely Eastern Africa.
Bird flu, also known as Avian influenza, is a type of influenza virus that affects mostly birds and irregularly pigs.
"The virus can pass from bird to bird when it is inhaled and from contact with infected droppings. Like birds, human beings acquire bird flu through inhaling the virus,” says Mwebesa Tom, a lecturer in the Public Health Institute at Makerere University,
"The virus, having been inhaled, it eats cells in the body and instead of the cells producing other normal cells, it produces the virus,” says Mwebesa.
Wildlife scientists have cautioned that Eastern Africa countries are directly threatened by bird flu. They say since the region, was a major route for millions of migrant wild birds from Eurasia every year, the virus can have an easy access into it.
The farmers in the region will soon have it rough if their governments do not handle the threat of bird flu pandemic with great care.
Little has been done in this region, where poultry and humans tend to live in close proximity, to sensitize farmers and other masses about the pandemic.
At least the 10 interviewed people who keep domestic birds in Mbarara stressed that they had not been educated about Bird flu.
“We only hear bird flu on radio,” said John Tiwangye one of them while peaking in Kinyankole.
With over 190 human cases of bird flu detected worldwide and a bout 110 deaths as a result , if nothing is done to sanitize farmers in Eastern Africa , the number of deaths could shoot up greatly.
“It is important that these local people are told about the symptoms of the disease so that they can keep on guard," says Jeconeous Musingwire,the Southwestern Focal Person for the Agency that oversees environment in Uganda- NEMA.
The US based Center for Disease control (CDC) and the World Health Organization (WHO) have identified a major symptom of bird flu in birds as sudden deaths in big numbers. In human beings, the two organizations say some of the symptoms include severe illness characterized by fever, sore throat, cough, pneumonia and rapid death.
Like Kenya, Ugandan government has just acquired a machine to diagnose and detect bird flu. However with out public awareness about the disease, such machines are not enough.
Kenya’s Medical Service Director, James Nyikal and Uganda’s Health Commissioner for communicable diseases, Dr Sam Okware have on several occasions insisted that their countries are prepared to deal with this pandemic. However, farmers in these regions are far from being prepared. They are ignorant about the virus.
The farmers’ ignorance was displayed recently in Kiruhura district in Uganda when local people there woke up one morning last month to find dozens of cattle eaglets dead in their area. Their carcasses lay in a stream and bushes nearby. It took about a week for local people to report this to authorities.
“If bird flu had been the cause of deaths of these birds, several people there would have acquired it because most of them had already got in contact with the carcasses,” Musingwire says.
Farming and health experts from some African countries , donor organizations and top UN officials last month met in Gabon to lay strategies on how to respond to bird flu. However not much that was discussed in this meeting has been released to benefit the local people.
“We must do everything to contain the virus and stop it turning into a pandemic over the next few months,” the UNDP’s representative in Gabon, Bintou Djibou, told a news conference before the meeting.
UN health officials have warned that if bird flu turns into a pandemic, it could kill between 5 to 150 million people worldwide. Farmers in Eastern Africa are already nervous about this.
But what should the average, nervous Eastern Africa farmer, worried bout bird flu do?
World Health Organization says people should not touch birds that have died under unknown circumstances and should not eat uncooked or undercooked poultry or poultry products.
WHO also warns people against sharing houses with poultry and also eating any bird that has died under suspicious circumstances.
In case of any out break, WHO says there is need to quarantine the suspected birds with in a radius of 30 kilometers, stamp out all domestic birds in a radius of 5 kilometers from the infected farm or homestead and disinfection of the affected farms or homesteads.
With the pilot (birds) flying the plane in any directions, no one is safe. The stopover is there today, tomorrow it may be here. This calls on the governments in the Eastern Africa region, civil organization, politicians and local people to come together and see bird flu as a great danger that may cause catastrophe in the region if nothing is done now to prevent it.
ENDS
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